Artsakh on February 13, 1988. Traditionally considered the start of the
Artsakh movement. Motivated by fears of cultural and physical erasure under
government policies from Azerbaijan, Armenians launched a national liberation movement which came to be known as the
Karabakh Movement between 1988 to 1991. The movement advocated for the reunification of the
Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (NKAO) – an autonomous enclave within
Azerbaijan – with
Armenia. The
Republic of Artsakh (also known as the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic), in the
Caucasus region, declared its independence in a
1991 referendum, which had an approval of 99% of voters; however, the breakaway state remained unrecognized by UN states and was disbanded on January 1, 2024, after Azerbaijan's
military offensive and
the expulsion of 99% of its population. The Armenian refugees from
Nagorno-Karabakh have petitioned for the
right of return. The
government of Artsakh remains a
government-in-exile.
Samvel Shahramanyan, former and final president of Nagorno-Karabakh stated "our right to return to our birthplace, our homeland, is not up for denial." However, the state-sponsored
anti-Armenian sentiment within Azerbaijan complicates the possible return of Azerbaijan's ethnic Armenian population.
Assyria The
Assyrian independence movement is a political movement and nationalist desire of the
Assyrian people to live in their traditional Assyrian homeland under the self-governance of an Assyrian state. The Assyrian territory is currently in parts of
Syria,
Iraq,
Iran, and
Turkey.
Australia Self-determination has become the topic of some debate in Australia in relation to
Aboriginal Australians and
Torres Strait Islanders. In the 1970s, Aboriginal Australians requested the right to administer their own remote communities as part of the
homelands movement, also known as the outstation movement. These grew in number through the 1980s, but funding dried up in the 2000s.
Azawad of Azawad in 2012 The traditional homeland of the
Tuareg peoples was divided up by the modern borders of
Mali,
Algeria and
Niger. Numerous rebellions occurred over the decades, but in 2012, the Tuaregs succeeded in occupying their land and declaring the independence of
Azawad. However, their movement was hijacked by the Islamist terrorist group
Ansar Dine.
Balochistan The self-determination movement advanced by Baloch separatists is based on the argument that their incorporation into Pakistan in 1948 occurred without a genuine and inclusive popular mandate. At the time of
partition of India, Balochistan consisted of British-administered territories and several princely states, the most prominent of which was the
Khanate of Kalat. Following the withdrawal of British rule, Kalat declared independence in August 1947, asserting its historical sovereignty and treaty-based relationship with the British Crown. In March 1948, Kalat acceded to
Pakistan, a decision that was contested by segments of the Baloch leadership, who argued that the accession was carried out under political and military pressure. The insurgents have engaged in intermittent armed resistance against Pakistani rule from 1948 to the present. The conflict began shortly after the accession of the princely state of Kalat to Pakistan in March 1948, which was followed by the first Baloch rebellion led by
Prince Abdul Karim. Since then, the region has witnessed several phases of insurgency—most notably in 1948, 1958–59, 1962–63, 1973–77, and from the early 2000s onwards, each driven by a combination of political-, economic-, and security-related grievances. Baloch separatists argue that they have been politically marginalized and subjected to systematic abuse by the Pakistani state. Currently, the
Balochistan Liberation Front and the
Balochistan Liberation Army are among the leading groups associated with the movement, and are involved in both political activities and armed resistance against the Pakistani state for . Balochistani nationalists also considers parts of Iran and Afghanistan as part of their independent state.
Basque Country The Basque Country (, , ) as a
cultural region (not to be confused with the homonym
Autonomous Community of the
Basque country) is a European region in the western
Pyrenees that spans the border between France and Spain, on the Atlantic coast. It comprises the autonomous communities of the Basque Country and
Navarre in Spain and the
Northern Basque Country in France. Since the 19th century,
Basque nationalism has demanded the right of some kind of self-determination. This desire for independence is particularly stressed among
leftist Basque nationalists. The right of self-determination was asserted by the
Basque Parliament in 1990, 2002 and 2006. Since self-determination is not recognized in the
Spanish Constitution of 1978, some Basques abstained and some voted against it in the referendum of December 6 of that year. It was approved by a clear majority at the Spanish level, and with 74.6% of the votes in the Basque Country. However, the overall turnout in the Basque Country was 45% when the Spanish overall turnover was 67.9%. The derived autonomous regime for the BAC was approved by Spanish Parliament and also by the Basque citizens in referendum. The autonomous statute of Navarre (
Amejoramiento del Fuero: "improvement of the charter") was approved by the Spanish Parliament and, like the statutes of 13 out of 17 Spanish autonomous communities, it did not need a referendum to enter into force.
Euskadi Ta Askatasuna or ETA (; pronounced ), was an armed Basque nationalist,
separatist and
terrorist organization that killed more than 800 people. Founded in 1959, it evolved from a group advocating traditional cultural ways to a
paramilitary group with the goal of
Basque independence. Its ideology was
Marxist–Leninist.
Biafra of the late 1960s. Pictures of the famine caused by Nigerian blockade garnered sympathy for the Biafrans worldwide. The
Nigerian Civil War was fought between Biafran secessionists of the
Republic of Biafra and the
Nigerian central government. From 1999 to the present day, the indigenous people of Biafra have been agitating for independence to revive their country. They have registered a human rights organization known as Bilie Human Rights Initiative both in Nigeria and in the United Nations to advocate for their right to self-determination and achieve independence by the rule of law.
Catalonia After the
2012 Catalan march for independence, in which between 600,000 and 1.5 million citizens marched, the
President of Catalonia,
Artur Mas, called for new
parliamentary elections on 25 November 2012 to elect a new
parliament that would exercise the right of self-determination for Catalonia, a right not recognised under the
Spanish Cortes Generales. The
Parliament of Catalonia voted to hold a vote in the next four-year legislature on the question of self-determination. The parliamentary decision was approved by a large majority of MPs: 84 voted for, 21 voted against, and 25 abstained. The Catalan Parliament applied to the Spanish Parliament for the power to call a referendum to be devolved, but this was turned down. In December 2013, the President of the Generalitat Artur Mas and the governing coalition agreed to set the referendum for self-determination on 9 November 2014, and legislation specifically saying that the consultation would not be a "referendum" was enacted, only to be blocked by the
Spanish Constitutional Court, at the request of the Spanish government. Given the block, the government turned it into a simple "consultation to the people" instead. The question in the consultation was "Do you want Catalonia to be a state? If so, do you want Catalonia to become an independent state?". However, as the consultation was not a formal referendum, these (printed) answers were just suggestions and other answers were also accepted and catalogued as "other answers" instead as null votes. The turnout in this consultation was about 2.23 million people out of 5.4 million potential voters. Due to the lack of an official census, potential voters were assigned to electoral tables according to home address and first family name. Participants had to sign up first with their full name and national ID in a voter registry before casting their ballot, which prevented participants from potentially casting multiple ballots. The overall result was 80.76% in favor of both questions, 11% in favor of the first question but not of the second questions, 4.54% against both; and the rest were classified as "other answers". The voter turnout was around 37% (most people against the consultation did not go to vote). Four top members of Catalonia's political leadership were barred from public office for having defied the Constitutional court's last-minute ban. on 1 October 2018 Almost three years later (1 October 2017), the Catalan government called a
referendum for independence under legislation adopted in September 2017, despite this legislation had been suspended by the Constitutional Court for "violating fundamental rights of citizens", with the question "Do you want Catalonia to become an independent state in the form of a Republic?". On polling day, the Catalan regional police, which had been accused in the past of
police brutality and impunity during the 15-M protests, prevented voting in over 500 polling stations without incidents. In some voting stations, the Catalan regional police did not intervene, while in other stations, they directly confronted the Spanish CNP (National Police Corps) to allow voters to participate. The CNP confiscated ballot boxes and closed down 92, voting centres with violent truncheon charges. The opposition parties had called for non-participation. The turnout (according to the votes that were counted) was 2.3m out of 5.3m (43.03% of the census), and 90.18% of the ballots were in favour of independence. The turnout, ballot count and results were similar to those of the 2014 "consultation".
Chechnya Under
Dzhokhar Dudayev,
Chechnya declared independence as the
Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, using self-determination, Russia's history of bad treatment of
Chechens, and a history of independence before invasion by Russia as main motives. Russia has restored control over Chechnya, but the separatist government functions still in exile, though it has been split into two entities: the
Akhmed Zakayev-run secular Chechen Republic (based in Poland, the United Kingdom, and the United States), and the Islamic
Caucasus Emirate.
East Turkistan members at
Capitol Hill on 14 September 2004 On November 12, 1933, Uyghurs, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, and Uzbeks declared independence, establishing the
First East Turkestan Republic, and again on November 12, 1944, forming the socialist
Second East Turkestan Republic. Their primary motivations included self-determination against a history of colonization and oppression by the Manchu
Qing Dynasty. The
People's Republic of China assumed control over East Turkistan in late 1949. There is a robust movement advocating East Turkistani sovereignty, challenging the Chinese occupation since 2004, namely the
East Turkistan Government in Exile is at the forefront of the
East Turkistan Independence Movement.
Eastern Ukraine , April 2015 There is an active secessionist movement based on the self-determination of the residents of the eastern part of
Donetsk and the southeastern part of the
Luhansk regions of eastern
Ukraine. However, many in the international community assert that
referendums held there in 2014 regarding independence from Ukraine were
illegitimate and undemocratic. Similarly, there are reports that
presidential elections in May 2014 were prevented from taking place in the two regions after armed gunmen took control of polling stations, kidnapped election officials, and stole lists of electors, thus denying the population the chance to express their will in a free, fair, and internationally recognised election. There are also arguments that the
de facto separation of
Eastern Ukraine from the rest of the country is not an expression of self-determination, but rather motivated by revival of
pro-Soviet sentiment and an invasion by neighbouring
Russia, with Ukrainian President
Petro Poroshenko claiming in 2015 that up to 9,000
Russian soldiers were deployed in Ukraine. Similarly, Russian President
Vladimir Putin defended
the annexation of Crimea by claiming it to be an act of self-determination of the Crimean people.
Ethiopia The
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia is run as a federation of semi-self-governing
nation states. The
Constitution of Ethiopia firmly mentions the self-determining nature of its states. The actual implementation of its states self-governance is debatable.
Falkland Islands Self-determination is referred to in the
Falkland Islands Constitution and is a factor in the
Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute. The population has existed for over nine generations, continuously for over 190 years. In the
2013 referendum, organised by the
Falkland Islands Government, 99.8% voted to remain British. As administering power, the
British Government deemed that transfer of sovereignty to
Argentina would be counter to the Falkland Islander right to self-determination, since the majority of Falkland Island inhabitants wished to remain British. Argentina states that the principle of self-determination is not applicable to the islands since the current inhabitants are not aboriginal and were brought to replace the Argentine population, which was expelled by an 'act of force', compelling the Argentinian inhabitants to directly leave the islands. This refers to the
re-establishment of British rule in the year 1833 during which Argentina claims the existing population living in the islands was expelled. Argentina thus argues that, in the case of the Falkland Islands, the principle of territorial integrity
should have precedence over self-determination. Historical records dispute Argentina's claims and whilst acknowledging the garrison was expelled note the existing civilian population remained at
Port Louis. There was no attempt to settle the islands until 1841.
Gibraltar The right to self-determination is referred to in the preamble of Chapter 1 of the
Gibraltar constitution, and, since the United Kingdom also gave assurance that the right to self-determination of Gibraltarians would be respected in any transfer of sovereignty over the territory, is a factor in the dispute with Spain over the territory. The impact of the right to self-determination of Gibraltarians was seen in the
2002 Gibraltar sovereignty referendum, where Gibraltarian voters overwhelmingly rejected a plan to share sovereignty over Gibraltar between the UK and Spain. However, the UK government differs with the Gibraltarian government in that it considers Gibraltarian self-determination to be limited by the
Treaty of Utrecht, which prevents Gibraltar achieving independence without the agreement of Spain, a position that the Gibraltarian government does not accept. The Spanish government denies that Gibraltarians have the right to self-determination, considering them to be "an artificial population without any genuine autonomy" and not "indigenous". However, the
Partido Andalucista has agreed to recognise the right to self-determination of Gibraltarians.
Greenland Hong Kong Before the United Nations' adoption of resolution 2908 (XXVII) on 2 November 1972, The People's Republic of China vetoed the former British colony of Hong Kong's right to self-determination on 8 March 1972. This sparked several nations' protest along with Great Britain's declaration on 14 December that the decision is invalid. Decades later, an independence movement, dubbed as the Hong Kong independence movement emerged in the now Communist Chinese controlled territory. It advocates the autonomous region to become a fully independent sovereign state. The city is considered a
special administrative region (SAR) which, according to the PRC, enjoys a high degree of autonomy under the People's Republic of China (PRC), guaranteed under Article 2 of
Hong Kong Basic Law[1] (which is ratified under the
Sino-British Joint Declaration), since the
handover of Hong Kong from the United Kingdom to the PRC in 1997. Since the handover, many Hongkongers are increasingly concerned about Beijing's growing encroachment on the territory's freedoms and the failure of the Hong Kong government to deliver 'true' democracy.
[2] put up before a football match between the
Hong Kong Football Team and the
China national football team The
2014–15 Hong Kong electoral reform package deeply divided the city, as it allowed Hongkongers to have universal suffrage, but Beijing would have authority to screen the candidates to restrict the electoral method for the
Chief Executive of Hong Kong (CE), the highest-ranking official of the territory. This sparked the 79-day massive peaceful protests which was dubbed as the "
Umbrella Revolution" and the pro-independence movement emerged on the Hong Kong political scene.
[2] Since then,
localism has gained momentum, particularly after the failure of the peaceful
Umbrella Movement. Young localist leaders have led numerous protest actions against pro-Chinese policies to raise awareness of social problems of Hong Kong under Chinese rule. These include the sit-in protest against the
Bill to Strengthen Internet Censorship, demonstrations against
Chinese political interference in the University of Hong Kong, the
Recover Yuen Long protests and the
2016 Mong Kok civil unrest. According to a survey conducted by the
Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK) in July 2016, 17.4% of respondents supported the city becoming an independent entity after 2047, while 3.6% stated that it is "possible".
[3]
Indigenous peoples s in
Davao City marching for the right to self-determination as part of the
human rights in Philippines in 2008
Indigenous peoples have claimed through the 2007
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples the term peoples, and gaining with it the right to self-determination. Though it was also established that it is merely a right within existing
sovereign states, peoples also need territory and a central government to reach
sovereignty in international politics.
Israel proclaiming Israel's independence beneath a large portrait of Theodor Herzl
Zionism is a nationalist ideology founded by
Theodor Herzl which claims a right of historic entitlement by descent as a nation, to exercise self-determination for
all Jewish people in the region of
Palestine/
ancient Israel/
land of Israel. The successful implementation of this vision led to the establishment of the
State of Israel in 1948.
Kashmir The
insurgency in Kashmir against Indian rule has existed in various forms. A widespread armed insurgency started in Kashmir against India rule in 1989 after allegations of rigging by the Indian government in the
1987 Jammu and Kashmir state election. This led to some parties in the state assembly forming militant wings, which acted as a catalyst for the emergence of armed insurgency in the region. The conflict over Kashmir has resulted in tens of thousands of deaths. The
Inter-Services Intelligence of
Pakistan has been accused by India of supporting and training both pro-Pakistan and pro-independence militants to fight Indian security forces in Jammu and Kashmir, a charge that Pakistan denies. According to official figures released in the Jammu and Kashmir assembly, there were 3,400 disappearance cases and the conflict has left more than 47,000 to 100,000 people dead as of July 2009. However, violence in the state had fallen sharply after the start of a slow-moving peace process between India and Pakistan. After the peace process failed in 2008, mass demonstrations against Indian rule, and low-scale militancy emerged again. However, despite boycott calls by separatist leaders in 2014, the
Jammu and Kashmir Assembly elections saw highest voters turnout in last 25 years since insurgency erupted.
Kurdistan 's female fighters during the
Syrian War ,
Kurdistan Region, September 2017
Kurdistan is a historical region primarily inhabited by the
Kurdish people of the Middle East. The territory is currently part of Turkey, Iraq, Syria and Iran. There are Kurdish self-determination movements in each of the four states.
Iraqi Kurdistan has to date achieved the largest degree of self-determination through the formation of the
Kurdistan Regional Government, an entity recognised by the
Iraqi Federal Constitution. Although the right of the creation of a Kurdish state was recognized following World War I in the
Treaty of Sèvres, the treaty was then annulled by the
Treaty of Lausanne (1923). To date, two separate Kurdish republics and one Kurdish Kingdom have declared sovereignty: The
Republic of Ararat (
Ağrı Province, Turkey), the
Republic of Mehabad (
West Azerbaijan Province, Iran) and the
Kingdom of Kurdistan (
Sulaymaniyah Governorate,
Iraqi Kurdistan, Iraq); each of these fledgling states was crushed by military intervention. The
Patriotic Union of Kurdistan, which currently holds the
Iraqi presidency and the
Kurdistan Democratic Party which governs the
Kurdistan Regional Government, both explicitly commit themselves to the development of Kurdish self-determination, but opinions vary as to the question of self-determination sought within the current borders and countries. Efforts towards Kurdish self-determination are considered illegal separatism by the governments of Turkey and Iran, and the movement is politically repressed in both states. This is intertwined with Kurdish nationalist insurgencies
in Iran and
in Turkey, which in turn justify and are justified by the repression of peaceful advocacy. In Syria, a self-governing
local Kurdish-dominated polity was established in 2012, amongst the upheaval of the
Syrian Civil War, but has not been recognized by any foreign state.
Nagalim Naga refers to a vaguely defined conglomeration of distinct tribes living on the border of India and Burma. Each of these tribes lived in a sovereign village before the arrival of the
British but developed a common identity as the area was Christianized. After the British left India, a section of Nagas under the leadership of
Angami Zapu Phizo sought to establish a separate country for the Nagas. Phizo's group, the
Naga National Council (NNC), claimed that 99. 9% of the Nagas wanted an independent Naga country according to a referendum conducted by it. It waged a secessionist insurgency against the Government of India. The NNC collapsed after Phizo got his dissenters killed or forced them to seek refuge with the Government. Phizo escaped to London, while NNC's successor secessionist groups continued to stage violent attacks against the Indian Government. The Naga People's Convention (NPC), another major Naga organization, was opposed to the secessionists. Its efforts led to the creation of a separate Nagaland state within India in 1963. The secessionist violence declined considerably after the
Shillong Accord of 1975. However, three factions of the
National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) continue to seek an independent country which would include parts of India and Burma. They envisage a sovereign, predominantly Christian nation called "Nagalim".
North Borneo and Sarawak Another controversial episode with perhaps more relevance was the British beginning their exit from
British Malaya. An experience concerned the findings of a United Nations Assessment Team that led the British territories of
North Borneo and
Sarawak in 1963 to determine whether or not the populations wished to become a part of the new
Malaysia Federation. The United Nation Team's mission followed on from an earlier assessment by the British-appointed
Cobbold Commission which had arrived in the territories in 1962 and held hearings to determine public opinion. It also sifted through 1600 letters and memoranda submitted by individuals, organisations and political parties. Cobbold concluded that around two-thirds of the population favoured to the formation of Malaysia, while the remaining third wanted either independence or continuing control by the United Kingdom. The United Nations team largely confirmed these findings, which were later accepted by the General Assembly, and both territories subsequently wish to form the new Federation of
Malaysia. The conclusions of both the Cobbold Commission and the United Nations team were arrived at without any
referendums of self-determination being held.
Unlike in Singapore, however, no referendum was ever conducted in
Sarawak and
North Borneo. They sought to consolidate several of the previous ruling entities; the
Manila Accord, an agreement between the Philippines,
Federation of Malaya and Indonesia, followed on 31 July 1963 to abide by the wishes of the people of
North Borneo and
Sarawak within the context of
United Nations General Assembly Resolution 1541 (XV), Principle 9 of the Annex, taking into account
referendums in North Borneo and Sarawak that would be free and without coercion.
Northern Cyprus , North Nicosia in 2006, with the
Northern Cyprus and
Turkish flags Cyprus was settled by
Mycenaean Greeks in two waves in the
2nd millennium BC. As a strategic location in the
Middle East, it was subsequently occupied by several major powers, including the empires of the
Assyrians,
Egyptians and
Persians, from whom the island was seized in 333 BC by
Alexander the Great. Subsequent rule by
Ptolemaic Egypt, the
Classical and
Eastern Roman Empire,
Arab caliphates for a short period and the
French Lusignan dynasty. Following the death in 1473 of
James II, the last Lusignan king, the
Republic of Venice assumed control of the island, while the late king's Venetian widow, Queen
Catherine Cornaro, reigned as figurehead. Venice formally annexed the
Kingdom of Cyprus in 1489, following the abdication of Catherine. The Venetians fortified
Nicosia by building the
Walls of Nicosia, and used it as an important commercial hub. Although the Lusignan French aristocracy remained the dominant social class in Cyprus throughout the medieval period, the former assumption that Greeks were treated only as
serfs on the island is no longer considered by academics to be accurate. It is now accepted that the medieval period saw increasing numbers of
Greek Cypriots elevated to the upper classes, a growing Greek middle ranks, and the Lusignan royal household even marrying Greeks. This included King
John II of Cyprus who married
Helena Palaiologina. Throughout Venetian rule, the
Ottoman Empire frequently raided Cyprus. In 1539, the Ottomans destroyed
Limassol and so fearing the worst, the Venetians also fortified
Famagusta and
Kyrenia. Having invaded in 1570,
Turks controlled and solely governed all of the Cyprus island from 1571 until its leasing to the
British Empire in 1878. Cyprus was placed under
British administration based on
Cyprus Convention in 1878 and formally annexed by Britain at the beginning of
World War I in 1914. While Turkish Cypriots made up 18% of the population, the partition of Cyprus and creation of a Turkish state in the north became a policy of Turkish Cypriot leaders and the
Republic of Turkey in the 1950s. Politically, there was no majority/minority relation between
Greek Cypriots and
Turkish Cypriots; and hence, in 1960,
Republic of Cyprus was founded by the constituent communities in Cyprus (Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots) as a non-unitary state; the 1960 Constitution set both
Turkish and
Greek as the official languages. During 1963–74, the island experienced ethnic clashes and turmoil, following the
Greek nationalists' coup to unify the island to Greece, which led to the eventual
Turkish invasion in 1974.
Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus was declared in 1983 and recognized only by Turkey. Monroe Leigh, 1990, The Legal Status in International Law of the Turkish Cypriot and the Greek Cypriot Communities in Cyprus. The Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot regimes participating in these negotiations, and the respective communities which they represent, are presently entitled to exercise equal rights under international law, including rights of self-determination. Before the
Turkey's invasion in 1974, Turkish Cypriots were concentrated in
Turkish Cypriot enclaves in the island. Northern Cyprus fulfills all the classical criteria of statehood. United Nations Peace Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) operates based on the laws of Northern Cyprus in north of Cyprus island. According to
European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR), the laws of Northern Cyprus is valid in the north of Cyprus. ECtHR did
not accept the claim that the Courts of Northern Cyprus lacked "independence and/or impartiality". ECtHR directed all Cypriots to exhaust "domestic remedies" applied by Northern Cyprus before taking their cases to ECtHR. In 2014, the
United States Federal Court qualified
Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus as a "democratic country". In 2017, the United Kingdom's High Court decided that "There was no duty in UK law upon the UK's Government to refrain from recognising Northern Cyprus. The United Nations itself works with Northern Cyprus law enforcement agencies and facilitates cooperation between the two parts of the island." UK's
High Court also dismissed the claim that "cooperation between UK police and law agencies in northern Cyprus was illegal".
Palestine , free Palestine" rally in
Helsinki, 21 October 2023 Palestinian self-determination is the aspiration of some Palestinians and
Palestinian nationalists for increased
autonomy and
sovereign independence, as well as to the international right of self-determination applied to
Palestine. Such sentiments are features of both the
one state solution and the
two state solution. In the two state solution this usually denotes territorial integrity initiatives, such as resisting
occupation in the West Bank, annexation efforts in East Jerusalem or
freedom of movement along borders, as well the preservation of important sites such as
al-Aqsa mosque.
Quebec : In Canada, many
Francophone citizens in the
Province of Quebec have wanted the province to separate from
Confederation. The
Parti Québécois has asserted Quebec's "right to self-determination." There is debate on under which conditions would this right be realized.
French-speaking Quebec nationalism and support for maintaining
Québécois culture would inspire
Quebec nationalists, many of whom were supporters of the
Quebec sovereignty movement during the late 20th century.
Sardinia Sardinian nationalism or Sardism (
Sardismu in
Sardinian; in Italian) is a social, cultural and political movement in
Sardinia calling for the self-determination of the
Sardinian people in a context of national
devolution, further
autonomy in Italy, or even outright independence from the latter. It also promotes the
protection of the island's environment and the preservation of its
cultural heritage. Even though the island has been characterized by periodical waves of ethnonationalist protests against
Rome, the Sardinian movement has its origins on the
left of the political spectrum;
regionalism and attempts for Sardinian self-determination historically countered in fact the Rome-centric
Italian nationalism and
fascism (which eventually managed to contain the autonomist and separatist tendencies).
Scotland , 2026
Scotland ceased to exist as a sovereign state in 1707, as did
England, when the
Acts of Union (1707) created the unified
Kingdom of Great Britain, but has a long-standing
Scottish independence movement, with polls suggesting in January 2020 that 52% of eligible voters would vote for an independent Scotland. The country's largest political party, the
Scottish National Party, campaigns for Scottish independence. A
referendum on independence was held in 2014, where it was rejected by 55% of voters. The Independence debate continued throughout the
UK referendum on EU membership where the electorate in Scotland voted by 62% to remain a member of the EU, as did Northern Ireland. Results in England and Wales, however, led to the whole of the United Kingdom leaving the EU. In late 2019, the
Scottish Government announced plans to demand a second referendum on Scottish Independence. This was given assent by the
Scottish Parliament but, as of July 2022, British Prime Minister
Boris Johnson has refused to grant the Section 30 powers required to hold another referendum on the argument that both sides accepted beforehand that the 2014 vote would settle the matter for a generation.
South Africa Section 235 of the
South African Constitution allows for the right to self-determination of a community, within the framework of "the right of the
South African people as a whole to self-determination", and pursuant to national legislation. This section of the constitution was one of the negotiated settlements during the handing over of political power in 1994. Supporters of an independent
Afrikaner homeland have argued that their goals are reasonable under this new legislation. The Allies subsequently granted South Tyrol to Italy, with the British foreign minister remarking that "in theory the Austrians have the better argument, however handing over the power stations of South Tyrol to them could openly give the Russians a helping hand with which they could pressurise Italy". Supporters of the proposed state of
New Afrika argue that the history of African-Americans productively living in several U.S. states in the
Black Belt entitles them to establish an African-American republic in the area, alongside $400 billion as
reparations for slavery. There are several active
Hawaiian autonomy or independence movements, each with the goal of realizing some level of political control over single or several islands. The groups range from those seeking territorial units similar to
Indian reservations under the United States, with the least amount of independent control, to the
Hawaiian sovereignty movement, which is projected to have the most independence. The Hawaiian Sovereignty movement seeks to revive the Hawaiian nation under the
Hawaiian constitution. . Since 1972, the
U.N. Decolonization Committee has called for
Puerto Rico's "decolonization" and for the U.S. to recognize the island's right to self-determination and independence. In 2007, the Decolonization Subcommittee called for the United Nations General Assembly to review the
political status of Puerto Rico, a power reserved by the 1953 Resolution. This followed the 1967 passage of a
plebiscite act that provided for a vote on the status of Puerto Rico with three status options: continued
commonwealth,
statehood, and
independence. In the first plebiscite, the commonwealth option won with 60.4% of the votes, but U.S. congressional committees failed to enact legislation to address the status issue. In subsequent plebiscites in 1993 and 1998, the status quo was favored. In a
referendum that took place in November 2012, a majority of Puerto Rican residents voted to change the territory's relationship with the United States, with the statehood option being the preferred option. But a large number of ballots—one-third of all votes cast—were left blank on the question of preferred alternative status. Supporters of the commonwealth status had urged voters to blank their ballots. When the blank votes are counted as anti-statehood votes, the statehood option would have received less than 50% of all ballots received. As of January 2014, Washington has not taken action to address the results of this plebiscite. Many current U.S.
state, regional and city secession groups use the language of self-determination. A 2008
Zogby International poll revealed that 22% of Americans believe that "any state or region has the right to peaceably secede and become an independent republic." For instance, the
League of the South is a group that seeks "a free and independent Southern republic" made up of the former
Confederate States of America. It operated a short-lived
Southern Party supporting the right of states to secede from the Union or to legally nullify federal laws. On December 15, 2022, the U.S. House of Representatives voted in favor of the
Puerto Rico Status Act. The act sought to resolve Puerto Rico's status and its relationship to the United States through a binding plebiscite. Since the late 20th century, some states periodically discuss desires to
secede from the United States. Unilateral secession was ruled
unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court in
Texas v. White (1869).
Western Sahara for the independence of Western Sahara, 2007 There is an active movement based on the self-determination of the
Sahrawi people in the
Western Saharan region.
Morocco also claims the entire territory, and maintains control of about two-thirds of the region.
West Papua in August 2012 The self-determination of the
West Papuan people has been violently suppressed by the
Indonesian Government since the withdrawal of
Dutch colonial rule under the
Dutch New Guinea in 1962.
Western Cape Since the late 2000s, there has been growing calls for the people of the
Western Cape province of
South Africa to become an independent state. South Africa in its current form was created in 1910 after the
South Africa Act 1909 was passed in the British parliament. The Cape Colony ceased to exist; however, many of its unique political and cultural quirks such as the
Cape Liberal Tradition nevertheless continued to exist. Recent polling has shown that over 46% of Western Cape voters back independence outright. == See also ==