The harvesting, processing, and consuming of seafoods are ancient practices with archaeological evidence dating back well into the
Paleolithic. Findings in a
sea cave at
Pinnacle Point in
South Africa indicate
Homo sapiens (modern humans) harvested marine life as early as 165,000 years ago, while the
Neanderthals, an extinct human species contemporary with early
Homo sapiens, appear to have been eating seafood at sites along the Mediterranean coast beginning around the same time. Isotopic analysis of the skeletal remains of
Tianyuan man, a 40,000-year-old
anatomically modern human from eastern Asia, has shown that he regularly consumed freshwater fish.
Archaeology features such as
shell middens, discarded fish bones, and
cave paintings show that sea foods were important for survival and consumed in significant quantities. During this period, most people lived a
hunter-gatherer lifestyle and were, of necessity, constantly on the move. However, early examples of permanent settlements (though not necessarily permanently occupied), such as those at
Lepenski Vir, were almost always associated with fishing as a major source of food. The ancient
river Nile was full of fish; fresh and dried fish were a staple food for much of the population. The
Egyptians had implements and methods for fishing and these are illustrated in
tomb scenes, drawings, and
papyrus documents. Some representations hint at fishing being pursued as a pastime. Fishing scenes are rarely represented in
ancient Greek culture, a reflection of the low social status of fishing. However,
Oppian of Corycus, a Greek author wrote a major treatise on sea fishing, the
Halieulica or
Halieutika, composed between 177 and 180. This is the earliest such work to have survived to the modern day. The consumption of fish varied by the wealth and location of the household. In the Greek islands and on the coast, fresh fish and seafood (
squid,
octopus, and
shellfish) were common. They were eaten locally but more often transported inland.
Sardines and
anchovies were regular fare for the citizens of Athens. They were sometimes sold fresh, but more frequently salted. A
stele of the late 3rd century BCE from the small Boeotian city of
Akraiphia, on
Lake Copais, provides us with a list of fish prices. The cheapest was
skaren (probably
parrotfish) whereas
Atlantic bluefin tuna was three times as expensive. Common salt water fish were
yellowfin tuna,
red mullet,
ray,
swordfish, or
sturgeon, a delicacy that was eaten salted. Lake Copais itself was famous in all of Greece for its
eels, celebrated by the hero of
The Acharnians. Other freshwater fish were
pike fish,
carp, and the less appreciated
catfish. Pictorial evidence of
Roman fishing comes from
mosaics. At a certain time, the
goatfish was considered the epitome of luxury, above all because its scales exhibit a bright red colour when it dies out of water. For this reason, these fish were occasionally allowed to die slowly at the table. There even was a recipe where this would take place
in Garo, in the
sauce. At the beginning of the Imperial era, however, this custom suddenly came to an end, which is why
mullus in the feast of
Trimalchio (see
the Satyricon) could be shown as a characteristic of the
parvenu, who bores his guests with an unfashionable display of dying fish. In
medieval times, seafood was less prestigious than other animal meats, and was often seen as merely an alternative to meat on fast days. Still, seafood was the mainstay of many coastal populations.
Kippers made from herring caught in the
North Sea could be found in markets as far away as
Constantinople. While large quantities of fish were eaten fresh, a large proportion was salted, dried, and, to a lesser extent, smoked.
Stockfish - cod that was split down the middle, fixed to a pole, and dried - was very common, though preparation could be time-consuming, and meant beating the dried fish with a mallet before soaking it in water. A wide range of
mollusks (including
oysters,
mussels and
scallops) were eaten by coastal and river-dwelling populations, and freshwater
crayfish were seen as a desirable alternative to meat during fish days. Compared to meat, fish was much more expensive for inland populations, especially in Central Europe, and therefore not an option for most. Modern knowledge of the reproductive cycles of aquatic species has led to the development of
hatcheries and improved techniques of
fish farming and
aquaculture. A better understanding of the
hazards of eating raw and undercooked fish and shellfish has led to improved preservation methods and processing. ==Types of seafood==