The fall of the
Sasanian Empire in 651 was followed by nearly a millennium without Iranian political unity, until the rise of the
Safavid Empire in 1501. In the intervening period, the territories formerly part of the ancient Iranian empires were variously subjected to larger foreign empires or divided into several smaller political units. Although no unified Iranian state existed, shared Iranian identity, culture, and language continued to survive and develop throughout the
Middle Ages. The medieval dynasties and kingdoms featured in this list follow a 2012 list of Iranian ruling dynasties by the Iranologist
Touraj Daryaee.
Arab (caliphal) rule (638–861) Rashidun Caliphate (638–661) under
Uthman|190px The
Muslim conquest of Persia began when the armies of the
Rashidun Caliphate attacked parts of Sasanian
Asoristan in 633. In 637/638, the Sasanians lost Mesopotamia. The empire itself was conquered in 640–651. By the time of
Yazdegerd III's death in 651, the Sasanians only retained
Bactria. Following the Muslim victory, the Sasanian Empire was dissolved and Iran came under the direct rule of the
Rashid caliphs. Although the caliphs implemented forms of ethnic stratification that discriminated against Iranians and their culture, particularly during the later
Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), they also adopted much of the old Sasanian administrative model to govern their empire. The style of the caliphs was
''amīr al-mu'minīn ().
An additional title, khalīfat Allāh (), was also introduced beginning with Uthman (644–656).'' The caliphate was initially ruled from
Medina. Under Ali, the capital was transferred to
Kufa in Iraq. })
Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) under
Umar II|190px The
Umayyad Caliphate was established by
Mu'awiya I, governor of Syria under the Rashidun caliphs. Mu'awiya opposed the acclamations of Ali and Hasan as caliphs, leading to the civil war known as the
First Fitna (656–661). Mu'awiya was victorious and became undisputed caliph after Hasan relinquished his claims. Umayyad caliphs continued to use the styles ''amīr al-mu'minīn
and khalīfat Allāh''.'
The Umayyad Caliphate was ruled from Damascus, though the capital was briefly transferred to Harran under the last caliph, Marwan II.'
Abbasid Caliphate (749–861) under
al-Mutawakkil|190px Because Mu'awiya took power in civil war, the rights of his and his descendants to the caliphate was long questioned. Anti-Umayyad insurrections were to a large degree supported by non-Arab converts to Islam (especially Iranians) who were resentful over being relegated to lower social standing. In 747–750, one of these insurrections grew into the
Abbasid revolution, in which the Umayyads were replaced with the
Abbasids, descendants of Muhammad's uncle
Abbas. Abbasid caliphs continued to use the styles ''amīr al-mu'minīn
and khalīfat Allāh''.'
The Abbasid Caliphate was ruled from Kufa, until the capital was transferred to the newly-founded Baghdad in 762.'
Iranian Intermezzo (821–1090) The political authority of the Abbasid caliphs diminished over the course of the ninth and tenth centuries. In Iran, this led to the establishment of several independent Iranian dynasties, the ousting of Arabs from their scattered bastions across the country, and an Iranian cultural renaissance. The period between the collapse of Abbasid authority and the conquest of Iran by the
Seljuk Turks in the eleventh century is referred to as the "Iranian Intermezzo". The Iranian Intermezzo saw the rise and fall of several major and minor dynasties. This list only includes major dynasties. Both Daryaee (2012) and Mahendrarajah (2019) list the major dynasties of the period as the
Tahirids,
Saffarids,
Ziyarids,
Buyids, and
Samanids. Daryaee also includes the
Ghaznavids, omitted by Mahendrarajah.
Tahirids (821–873) at their greatest extent|190px The Tahirids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers who governed
Khorasan and much of the rest of Iran under the Abbasid caliphs. The Tahirids enjoyed considerable autonomy in practice but were not
de jure independent; Tahirid rulers fully acknowledged that they were subordinate viceroys, were always deferential to the caliphs, and regularly forwarded tribute to Baghdad. The Tahirids were
Arabized, but they were nevertheless Persians. The Tahirids claimed descent from the Iranian mythological hero
Rostam. As vassals of the Caliphate, the Tahirid rulers used the title
amir. The Tahirids initially ruled from
Merv. The capital was transferred to
Nishapur under Abdallah.
Saffarids (867–1002) at their greatest extent|190px The Saffarids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers who at their height ruled much of Iran, and at times even reached into modern-day Iraq, from their base of power in
Sistan. Although the dynastic founder
Ya'qub (867–879) claimed Sasanian descent, the Saffarid dynasty originated as local ruffians and their power was attained solely through military might. The Saffarid state expanded aggressively under the rule of Ya'qub and
Amr I (879–901), under which the Tahirids were defeated and the Abbasid Caliphate was forced to confirm Saffarid control over various Iranian territories. Since they were nominally Abbasid subordinates, Saffarid rulers used the title
amir.
Zaranj served as the Saffarid capital.
Samanids (875–999) at their greatest extent|190px The Samanids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers established by four brothers in 819, when they were granted four important cities and regions by the Abbasid Caliphate due to helping against the revolt of
Rafi ibn al-Layth. In 875, the Samanids increased dramatically in power through investment as governors of
Transoxiana and in 892, all Samanid-held territories were united under a single ruler (
Ismail). Under Ismail, the Samanids became autonomous of the Abbasids. The Samanids claimed descent from
Bahram VI Chobin (589–590). Like other dynasties of their time, Samanid rulers used the title
amir.
Mansur I (961/962–976/977) assumed the style
šāhānšāh () as a response to the use of that title by the Buyids. Mansur I's son,
Nuh II (976/977–997), also used
šāhānšāh. The Samanid capital was at
Samarkand (875–892) and then at
Bukhara.
Ziyarids (927–1090/1091) at their greatest extent|190px The Ziyarids were a dynasty of Iranian rulers established in northern Iran by
Mardavij, a local mountain chief and mercenary who created an extensive kingdom in the late 920s and early 930s. Mardavij claimed descent from local pre-Islamic nobility and aspired to capture Baghdad, overthrow the Abbasids, and restore both the pre-651 empire as well as the Zoroastrian religion. These aspirations came to an end with Mardavij's murder by his Turkic military slaves in 934/935. Most of the Ziyarid realm was lost, except for territories surrounding the
Caspian Sea, inherited by Mardavij's Muslim relatives. Mardavij may have revived the Sasanian ruling title
šāhānšāh () since later
Buyid writers attribute the title to him. Later Ziyarid rulers used the title
amir. The Ziyarids went through a succession of capitals in northern Iran, including
Ray,
Amol, and
Gorgan.
Buyids (934–1062) at their greatest extent|190px The Buyids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers established by three brothers who had served under
Mardavij (the first Ziyarid ruler). After Mardavij's murder, the three carved out their own realm out of the southern Ziyarid territories. The Buyid state was composed of three principalities ruled by three branches of the family, sometimes with divergent goals, rather than a unified realm. The Buyids came to dominate much of Iran, a development that culminated in 945 with the capture of
Baghdad and domination of the caliph himself. The Buyid dynasty claimed descent from the Sasanian king
Bahram V (420–438), almost certainly a forgery. Individual Buyid rulers were styled as
amir. The senior of the three was also invested by the caliph with the grander title
amīr al-omarāʾ (). The Buyid emirates were transformed into something akin to a restored Iranian monarchy under
Rukn al-Dawla and his son
'Adud al-Dawla, who also reintroduced the Sasanian royal title
šāhānšāh (). This title continued to be sporadically claimed by Buyid dynasts. This list records only the 'main branch' of Buyid rulers, per Daryaee (2012). For a full list of major and minor Buyid rulers, see
Buyid dynasty § Buyid rulers. })
Ghaznavids (977–1040) at their greatest extent|190px The Ghaznavids were of Turkic slave origin. In the tenth century, Turkish slave commanders became increasingly prominent, and eventually effectively autonomous, in the southern parts of the Samanid realm. In 977, the commander
Sabuktigin seized power in
Ghazni, nominally as a Samanid vassal. Once the Samanids went into terminal decline and collapsed in the late tenth century, Sabuktigin's state became a fully independent realm. Although not Iranian, the Ghaznavid rulers nevertheless claimed descent from the Sasanian ruler
Yazdegerd III ( 633–651). Sabuktigin ruled with the title
al-ḥājeb al-ajall (). From 999 onwards, the Ghaznavids ruled with the title
sulṭān. Sabuktigin's capital, Ghazni, remained the Ghaznavid capital for the duration of their rule in Iran. The Ghaznavids lost their territories in Iran to the
Seljuks after the
Battle of Dandanaqan (1040). For later Ghaznavid rulers, see
Ghaznavids § List of rulers.
Turco-Mongol rule (1038–1508) Seljuk Empire (1038–1194) under
Malik-Shah I|190px The Seljuk Empire was established by the
Turkoman chieftain
Tughril I, who invaded the Ghaznavids in the late 1030s. In 1040, the Seljuks conquered the Ghaznavid-held parts of Iran and over the following decades they established control over most of the Middle East, ending the Iranian Intermezzo. Though they were not of Iranian origin, the Seljuk rulers bolstered their legitimacy by claiming descent from
Afrasiab, a legendary figure from the
Shahnameh.'''' From the empire's inception, the Seljuk rulers minted coins with the title
šāhānšāh () in its Persian form, perhaps adopting it from the Buyids. Later on, the rulers more prominently used the Arabic title
sulṭān and royal styles such as the Arabic
malik and Persian
šāh were bestowed on vassals.
Šāhānšāh continued to be used on the majority of Seljuk coinage, sometimes in the new variant "
šāhānšāh king of Islam".
Nishapur served as the first capital of the Seljuk Empire. In 1143, the capital was moved to
Ray and a few years later it was moved again to
Isfahan. From 1118 onwards, the Seljuk regime became increasingly unstable and rival claimants used various bases of power, including
Baghdad,
Hamadan, and
Merv.
Khwarazmian Empire (1097–1220/1221) under
Muhammad II|190px The Seljuk Empire fractured after the death of Ahmad Sanjar in 1157 and its vassals became effectively independent. One of these vassals was the
Anushtegin dynasty, which ruled the
Khwarazm region. The ruling dynasty were descendants of
Anushtegin Gharchai, a former Turkic slave of the Seljuq sultans. In 1194, the Khwarazmian ruler
Tekish conquered western Iran and Iraq from the remnants of the Seljuk Empire. The Khwarazmian rulers used the ancient title
xwârazmšāh, traditionally held by Iranian rulers of Khwarazm.
Urganj was the Khwarazmian capital.
Mongol Empire (1220–1259) 's nominal size under
Kublai Khan (1279)|190px The Mongol Empire was established by
Genghis Khan in 1206 through uniting the
Mongol clans. The unification of the clans was followed by aggressive imperial expansion throughout Asia and parts of Europe. In the early thirteenth century, the Mongols under reached Iran. The region around
Bukhara was conquered in 1220 and the Khwarazmian Empire was destroyed. Over the following decades, further conquests followed in the Middle East, culminating in the
fall of Baghdad and end of the
Abbasid Caliphate's rule there in 1258. The rulers of the Mongol Empire used the ruling title
khagan (). In the 1230s, the Mongol Empire established its capital at
Karakorum in Mongolia.
Ilkhanate (1256–1388) under
Ghazan Khan|190px After the death of Möngke Khan, the Mongol Empire was fractured by civil war, both over the succession of the next Great Khan and between nomadic traditionalists and the new settled princes of China and the Middle East.
Kublai Khan (1260–1294) was eventually universally recognized but the empire was irreversibly fragmented. In much of the south-west of the empire (including Iran), power fell to
Hulegu Khan, who had been made a deputy there under Möngke Khan. Hulegu was swiftly accepted as a legitimate ruler in Iran and was further legitimized through a
fatwa issued by the Shia scholar
Ali ibn Tawus al-Hilli. Iran experienced a cultural renaissance under Ilkhanid rule.
Ghazan Khan (1295–1304) converted to Islam in the late thirteenth century, turning the state further away from the other Mongol realms. The rulers of the Ilkhanate adopted the style
ilkhan () to show deference to the Great Khan in China and Mongolia. From the time of Ghazan Khan onwards, they also used the title
pādishāh-i Īrān (), sometimes extended to
pādishāh-i Īrān wa Islām (). The version
pādishāh-i Islām () is also recorded. The Ilkhanate went through a succession of capitals, beginning with
Maragheh (1256–1265),
Tabriz (1265–1306), and
Soltaniyeh (1306–1335). After the empire disintegrated in the 1330s, various claimants established different centers of power. The last ilkhan,
Luqman, ruled from
Astarabad under
Timurid suzerainty.
Timurid Empire (1370–1458) under
Timur|190px The Timurid Empire was established by
Timur, a conqueror who claimed both Turkic and Mongol descent. Timur began as a minor brigand chief under the
Chagatai Khanate. In the middle 1360s, Timur rose to become the effective ruler of
Transoxiana. He went on to establish his seat of power in
Khorasan and conquered most of Iran through campaigns in the 1380s and 1390s. During his conquests, Timur made some effort to portray himself as the heir of the Ilkhanate, adopting the Ilkhanid title
pādishāh-i Islām (). Timur also used the style
guregen () to stress his marriage to
Saray Mulk Khanum, a descendant of Genghis Khan.
Pādishāh continued to be used by Timur's successors, who at times also adopted the style of
sulṭān.
Samarkand was the capital of the Timurid Empire. The Timurids lost almost all of their territories in Iran to the
Qara Qoyunlu in 1452–1458. For later Timurid rulers in Khorasan and elsewhere, see
Timurid Empire § Emperors (Emir).
Qara Qoyunlu (1452–1469) under
Jahan Shah|190px The Qara Qoyunlu were a semi-nomadic
Turkoman confederation that grew in power west of Iran following the collapse of the Ilkhanate. The origins of the Qara Qoyunlu are obscure and they are first recorded as an identifiable group in the 1330s. Under the leader
Jahan Shah, the Qara Qoyunlu seized most of Iran from the Timurids. This began with the conquest of
Jibal in 1452, and continued with further conquests of
Isfahan,
Fars, and
Kerman in 1458. The Qara Qoyunlu rulers presented themselves as rulers of Iran and political successors of the Ilkhanate, using titles such as
pādishāh-i Īrān () and
kesra-yi Īrān ().
Tabriz served as the Qara Qoyunlu capital 1436–1467. This list only includes the Qara Qoyunlu rulers who ruled Iran. For a full list, see the
list of rulers of Qara Qoyunlu.
Aq Qoyunlu (1465–1508) under
Uzun Hasan|190px Like the Qara Qoyunlu, the Aq Qoyunlu were a semi-nomadic
Turkoman confederation that rose to power after the Ilkhanate's collapse. The Aq Qoyunlu was a more long-lived and better recorded group. In the 1450s and 1460s, the Aq Qoyunlu under
Uzun Hasan defeated both the Qara Qoyunlu and Timurid forces and by 1469, Uzun Hasan ruled all of Iraq and Iran. Like the preceding Qara Qoyunlu, the Aq Qoyunlu rulers titled themselves as
pādishāh-i Īrān () and
kesra-yi Īrān (), among other titles.
Amida was the original Aq Qoyunlu capital. The capital was transferred to
Tabriz under Uzun Hasan. This list only includes the Aq Qoyunlu rulers who ruled Iran. For a full list, see the
list of rulers of Aq Qoyunlu.
Minor kingdoms and dynasties • Various local Iranian dynasties in
Tabaristan: •
Qarinvand dynasty (550s–11th century) •
Dabuyid dynasty (642–760) •
Bavand dynasty (651–1349) •
Baduspanid dynasty (665–1598) •
Afrasiyab dynasty (1349–1504) •
Ghurid dynasty (786–1215), which controlled parts of eastern Iran • Minor dynasties of the Iranian Intermezzo: •
Sajid dynasty (889–929) in north-western Iran and Azerbaijan •
Rawadid dynasty (900–1070/1116) in Azerbaijan • The
Simjurids (913–1002) in
Khorasan and
Gorgan as viceroys of
Samanid Empire and
Buyid dynasty •
Sallarid dynasty (919–1062) in north-western Iran and Azerbaijan • The
Ilyasids (932–968) in
Kerman • The
Shaddadids (951–1199) in Armenia • The
Hasanwayhids (959–1015) in north-western Iran and Azerbaijan • The
Marwanids (983/990–1084) in
Mesopotamia • The
Annazids (990/991–late 12th century) in western Iran/eastern Iraq • The
Kakuyids (1008–1141) in central Iran • Amir Gilaki dynasty (11th and 12th centuries) in
Tabas and
Tun; known rulers were Amir Abul Hasan Gilaki Ibn Muhammad, who ruled c. 1052 (444
AH) and Amir Ismail Gilaki, who ruled until 1104 (497 AH) •
Nizari Ismaili state (1090–1256) in
Alamut and
Rudbar • Muhtashams of Quhistan (1091–1256) in
Quhistan region, as viceroys for Nizari Ismaili state • Muayyid dynasty (1161–1187) in Khorasan (three rulers:
Mu'ayyid al-Din Ai-Aba,
Toghan-Shah, and
Sanjar-Shah) • Minor successor states of the Ilkhanate: •
Kart dynasty (1244–1381) in much of Khorasan • The
Muzaffarids (1314–1393) in central and southern Iran • The
Injuids (1335–1357) in southern Iran •
Jalayirid Sultanate (1335–1432) in Iraq and western Iran • Jauni-Qurbani dynasty (1335–1381) in
Tus region, Khorasan in north-eastern Iran • The
Sarbadars (1337–1381) in parts of Khorasan • The
Chobanids (1338–1357) in north-western Iran and Azerbaijan == Modern Iran (1501–1979) ==