Early history Along with
Bukhara, Samarkand is one of the oldest inhabited cities in
Central Asia, prospering from its location on the trade route between China and Europe. There is no direct evidence of when it was founded. Researchers at the Institute of Archaeology of Samarkand date the city's founding around 700 BC.
Archaeological excavations conducted within the city limits (Syob and midtown) as well as suburban areas (Hojamazgil, Sazag'on) unearthed 40,000-year-old evidence of human activity, dating back to the
Upper Paleolithic. A group of
Mesolithic (12th–7th millennia BC) archaeological sites were discovered in the suburbs of Sazag'on-1, Zamichatosh, and Okhalik. The Syob and Darg'om
canals, supplying the city and its suburbs with water, appeared around the 7th–5th centuries BC (early
Iron Age). From its earliest days, Samarkand was one of the main centres of
Sogdian civilization. By the time of the
Achaemenid dynasty of Persia, the city had become the capital of the Sogdian
satrapy.
Hellenistic period Slaying
Cleitus in Samarkand'', by
Daniël de Blieck.
Ferens Art Gallery, Hull.
Alexander the Great conquered Samarkand in 329 BC. The city was known as
Maracanda (Μαράκανδα) by the Greeks. Written sources offer small clues as to the subsequent system of government. They mention one Orepius who became ruler "not from ancestors, but as a gift of Alexander." While Samarkand suffered significant damage during Alexander's initial conquest, the city recovered rapidly and flourished under the new Hellenic influence. There were also major new construction techniques. Oblong bricks were replaced with square ones and superior methods of
masonry and
plastering were introduced. Alexander's conquests introduced classical Greek culture into Central Asia and for a time, Greek aesthetics heavily influenced local artisans. This Hellenistic legacy continued as the city became part of various successor states in the centuries following Alexander's death, the Greek
Seleucid Empire,
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, and
Kushan Empire (even though the
Kushana themselves originated in Central Asia). After the Kushan state lost control of Sogdia during the 3rd century AD, Samarkand went into decline as a centre of economic, cultural, and political power. It did not significantly revive until the 5th century.
Sasanian era Samarkand was conquered by the Persian
Sasanians c. 260 AD. Under Sasanian rule, the region became an essential site for
Manichaeism and facilitated the dissemination of the religion throughout Central Asia.
Hephthalites and Turkic Khaganate era Between AD 350 and 375, Samarkand was conquered by the nomadic tribes of
Xionites, the origin of which remains controversial. The resettlement of nomadic groups to Samarkand confirms archaeological material from the 4th century. The culture of nomads from the Middle
Syrdarya basin is spreading in the region. Between 457 and 509, Samarkand was part of the
Kidarite state. during an audience with king
Varkhuman of Samarkand. 648–651 AD,
Afrasiyab murals, Samarkand. After the
Hephthalites ("White Huns") conquered Samarkand, they controlled it until the
Göktürks, in an alliance with the Sassanid Persians, won it at the
Battle of Bukhara, c. 560 AD. In the middle of the 6th century, a Turkic state was formed in Altai, founded by the Ashina dynasty. The new state formation was named the
Turkic Khaganate after the people of the Turks, which were headed by the ruler – the Khagan. From 557 to 561, the
Hephthalites empire was defeated by the joint actions of the Turks and Sassanids, which led to the establishment of a common border between the two empires. In the early Middle Ages, Samarkand was surrounded by four rows of defensive walls and had four gates. An ancient Turkic burial with a horse was investigated on the territory of Samarkand. It dates back to the 6th century. During the period of the ruler of the Western Turkic Khaganate,
Tong Yabghu Qaghan (618–630), family relations were established with the ruler of Samarkand – Tong Yabghu Qaghan gave him his daughter. Some parts of Samarkand have been Christian since the 4th century. In the 5th century, a
Nestorian chair was established in Samarkand. At the beginning of the 8th century, it was transformed into a Nestorian metropolitanate. Discussions and polemics arose between the Sogdian followers of
Christianity and
Manichaeism, reflected in the documents.
Early Islamic era n ruler
Turgar, last
Ikhshid of Samarkand,
Penjikent, 8th century AD,
National Museum of Antiquities of Tajikistan. The armies of the
Umayyad Caliphate under
Qutayba ibn Muslim captured the city from the
Tang dynasty c. 710 AD. Qutayba generally did not settle Arabs in Central Asia; he forced the local rulers to pay him tribute but largely left them to their own devices. Samarkand was the major exception to this policy: Qutayba established an Arab
garrison and Arab governmental administration in the city, its Zoroastrian
fire temples were razed, and a
mosque was built. Much of the city's population converted to Islam. As a long-term result, Samarkand developed into a center of Islamic and Arabic learning. Legend has it that during
Abbasid rule, the secret of
papermaking was obtained from two
Chinese prisoners from the
Battle of Talas in 751, which led to the foundation of the first
paper mill in the Islamic world at Samarkand. The invention then spread to the rest of the Islamic world and thence to Europe. of caliph
al-Mu'tazz, minted at Samarkand in
AH 253 (867 AD). His reign marks the apogee of the
decline of the Caliphate's central authority Abbasid
control of Samarkand soon dissipated and was replaced with that of the
Samanids (875–999), though the Samanids were still nominal vassals of the
Caliph during their control of Samarkand. Under Samanid rule the city became a capital of the Samanid dynasty and an even more important node of numerous trade routes. The Samanids were overthrown by the
Karakhanids around 999. Over the next 200 years, Samarkand would be ruled by a succession of
Turkic tribes, including the
Seljuqs and the
Khwarazmshahs. The 10th-century Persian author
Istakhri, who travelled in
Transoxiana, provides a vivid description of the natural riches of the region he calls "Smarkandian Sogd": I know no place in it or in Samarkand itself where if one ascends some elevated ground one does not see greenery and a pleasant place, and nowhere near it are mountains lacking in trees or a dusty steppe... Samakandian Sogd... [extends] eight days travel through unbroken greenery and gardens... . The greenery of the trees and sown land extends along both sides of the river [Sogd]... and beyond these fields is pasture for flocks. Every town and settlement has a fortress... It is the most fruitful of all the countries of
Allah; in it are the best trees and fruits, in every home are gardens, cisterns and flowing water.
Karakhanid (Ilek-Khanid) period (11th–12th centuries) After the fall of the
Samanids state in 999, it was replaced by the Qarakhanid State, where the Turkic Qarakhanid dynasty ruled. After the state of the Qarakhanids split into two parts, Samarkand became a part of the West
Karakhanid Khaganate and from 1040 to 1212 was its capital. The most striking monument of the Qarakhanid era in Samarkand was the palace of Ibrahim ibn Hussein (1178–1202), which was built in the citadel in the 12th century. During the excavations, fragments of monumental painting were discovered. On the eastern wall, a Turkic warrior was depicted, dressed in a yellow caftan and holding a bow. Horses, hunting dogs, birds and periodlike women were also depicted here.
Mongol period The Mongols
conquered Samarkand in 1220.
Juvayni writes that Genghis killed all who took refuge in the
citadel and the mosque, pillaged the city completely, and
conscripted 30,000 young men along with 30,000 craftsmen. Samarkand suffered at least one other Mongol sack by
Khan Baraq to get treasure he needed to pay an army. It remained part of the
Chagatai Khanate (one of four Mongol successor realms) until 1370.
The Travels of
Marco Polo, where Polo records his journey along the Silk Road in the late 13th century, describes Samarkand as "a very large and splendid city..." The
Yenisei area had
a community of weavers of Chinese origin, and Samarkand and
Outer Mongolia both had artisans of Chinese origin, as reported by
Changchun. After Genghis Khan conquered Central Asia, foreigners were chosen as governmental administrators; Chinese and Qara-Khitays (Khitans) were appointed as co-managers of gardens and fields in Samarkand, which Muslims were not permitted to manage on their own. The khanate allowed the establishment of Christian bishoprics (see below).
Timur's rule (1370–1405) Ibn Battuta, who visited in 1333, called Samarkand "one of the greatest and finest of cities, and most perfect of them in beauty." He also noted that the orchards were supplied water via
norias. In 1365, a revolt against Chagatai Mongol control occurred in Samarkand. In 1370, the conqueror
Timur (Tamerlane), the founder and ruler of the
Timurid Empire, made Samarkand his capital. Timur used various tools for legitimisation, including urban planning in his capital, Samarkand. Over the next 35 years, he rebuilt most of the city and populated it with great artisans and craftsmen from across the empire. Timur gained a reputation as a patron of the arts, and Samarkand grew to become the centre of the region of
Transoxiana. Timur's commitment to the arts is evident in how, in contrast with the ruthlessness he showed his enemies, he demonstrated mercy toward those with special artistic abilities. The lives of artists, craftsmen, and
architects were spared so that they could improve and beautify Timur's capital. Timur was also directly involved in construction projects, and his visions often exceeded the technical abilities of his workers. The city was in a state of constant construction, and Timur would often order buildings to be done and redone quickly if he was unsatisfied with the results. By his orders, Samarkand could be reached only by roads; deep ditches were dug, and walls in circumference separated the city from its surrounding neighbors.
Henry III of Castile's ambassador
Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo, who visited Samarkand between 8 September and 20 November 1404, attested to the never-ending construction that went on in the city. "The Mosque which Timur had built seemed to us the noblest of all those we visited in the city of Samarkand."
Ulugh Beg's period (1409–1449) , which contained this mural sextant, constructed in Samarkand during the 15th century. Between 1417 and 1420, Timur's grandson
Ulugh Beg built a
madrasah in Samarkand, which became the first building in the architectural ensemble of Registan. Ulugh Beg invited a large number of astronomers and mathematicians of the Islamic world to this madrasa. Under Ulugh Beg, Samarkand became one of the world centers of medieval science. In the first half of the 15th century, a whole scientific school arose around Ulugh Beg, uniting prominent astronomers and mathematicians including
Jamshid al-Kashi,
Qāḍī Zāda al-Rūmī, and
Ali Qushji. Ulugh Beg's main interest in science was astronomy, and he constructed an observatory in 1428. Its main instrument was the
wall quadrant, which was unique in the world. It was known as the "Fakhri Sextant" and had a radius of 40 meters. Seen in the image on the left, the arc was finely constructed with a staircase on either side to provide access for the assistants who performed the measurements.
Uzbek period In 1500,
nomadic
Uzbek warriors took control of Samarkand. Fazlallah ibn Ruzbihan in "Mikhmon-namei Bukhara" expresses his admiration for the majestic building of the madrasa, its gilded roof, high hujras, spacious courtyard and quotes a verse praising the madrasa. Zayn ad-din Vasifi, who visited the Sheibani-khan madrasa several years later, wrote in his memoirs that the veranda, hall and courtyard of the madrassah are spacious and magnificent. During the reign of the Ashtarkhanid
Imam Quli Khan (1611–1642) famous architectural masterpieces were built in Samarkand. In 1612–1656, the governor of Samarkand, Yalangtush Bahadur, built a cathedral mosque, the
Tilakari Madrasa and the
Sherdar Madrasa.
Zarafshan Water Bridge is a brick bridge built on the left bank of the
Zarafshan River, 7–8 km northeast of the center of Samarkand, built by
Shaibani Khan at the beginning of the 16th century. After an assault by the
Afshar Shahanshah
Nader Shah, the city was abandoned in the early 1720s. From 1599 to 1756, Samarkand was ruled by the
Ashtrakhanid branch of the
Khanate of Bukhara. File:Rajasthan3.jpg|The
Ulugh Beg Madrasa File:Rajasthan.jpg|The
Sherdar Madrasa File:Registan Tillya-Kari madrasah2014.JPG|The
Tilakari Madrasa Ulugh-beg Madrassa courtyard.JPG|The
Ulugh Beg Madrasa's courtyard File:Lion(or tiger) on the Sher-dor madrassa.JPG|Tiger on the
Sherdar Madrasa's
iwan Second half of the 18th–19’s century Uzbek period From 1756 to 1868, it was ruled by the
Manghud Emirs of
Bukhara. The revival of the city began during the reign of the founder of the Uzbek dynasty, the Mangyts, Muhammad Rakhim (1756–1758), who became famous for his strong-willed qualities and military art. Muhammad Rakhimbiy made some attempts to revive Samarkand.
Russian Empire period The city came under
imperial Russian rule after the citadel had been taken by a force under Colonel
Konstantin Petrovich von Kaufman in 1868. Shortly thereafter the small Russian garrison of 500 men were themselves
besieged. The assault, which was led by Abdul Malik Tura, the rebellious elder son of the
Bukharan Emir, as well as Baba
Beg of
Shahrisabz and Jura Beg of
Kitab, was repelled with heavy losses. General
Alexander Konstantinovich Abramov became the first Governor of the Military
Okrug, which the Russians established along the course of the
Zeravshan River with Samarkand as the administrative centre. The Russian section of the city was built after this point, largely west of the old city. In 1886, the city became the capital of the newly formed
Samarkand Oblast of
Russian Turkestan and regained even more importance when the
Trans-Caspian railway reached it in 1888.
Soviet period with Bibi-Khanym Mosque in 1990s Samarkand was the capital of
Turkestan Provisional Government in 1922 and was the capital of the
Uzbek SSR from 1925 to 1930, before being replaced by
Tashkent. During
World War II, after
Nazi Germany invaded the
Soviet Union, a number of Samarkand's citizens were sent to
Smolensk to
fight the enemy. Many were
taken captive or killed by the Nazis. Additionally, thousands of refugees from the occupied western regions of the USSR fled to the city, and it served as one of the main hubs for the fleeing civilians in the
Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic and the
Soviet Union as a whole. , depicting the
Sherdar Madrasa on the
Registan. European study of the history of Samarkand began after the conquest of Samarkand by the Russian Empire in 1868. The first studies of the history of Samarkand belong to N. Veselovsky, V. Bartold and V. Vyatkin. In the Soviet period, the generalization of materials on the history of Samarkand was reflected in the two-volume
History of Samarkand edited by the academician of Uzbekistan
Ibrohim Moʻminov. On the initiative of Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR I. Muminov and with the support of
Sharaf Rashidov, the 2500th anniversary of Samarkand was widely celebrated in 1970. In this regard, a monument to
Ulugh Beg was opened, the Museum of the History of Samarkand was founded, and a two-volume history of Samarkand was prepared and published. After Uzbekistan gained independence, several monographs were published on the ancient and medieval history of Samarkand. Modern Samarkand is a vibrant city, and in 2019 the city hosted the first Samarkand Half Marathon. In 2022 this also included a full marathon for the first time. ==Geography==