Background In 1849, the Ottoman Empire conquered the
Tihama region in order for the Zaydi imam to recognize Ottoman sovereignty and allow Ottoman forces to deploy to Sana'a.
Ahmed Muhtar Pasha with the Fırka-i İhtiyâtiyye Army to which he was assigned After eliminating Muhammed Âiz in
Asir, he re-established the Ottoman authority in Yemen by taking Sana'a, the most important city of Yemen, during the governorship of Yemen to which he was appointed in 1872. Ahmed Pasha not only established authority but also initiated construction works in Yemen. In addition to a castle, a mosque, and an imaret, he had a printing house established in San'a and a telegraph line was laid between San'a and Hudaydah. However, the Zaydis, who wanted their imams to rule Yemen, rebelled in 1889 because the Ottoman officials serving in the region were involved in corruption in administrative affairs. Hejaz Governor Ahmed Feyzi Pasha, who was assigned to suppress the rebellion, from
Hudaydah He advanced to Sana'a and Taiz and suppressed the rebellion in a short time. Not only was it difficult to suppress the rebellions in Yemen, but the poverty of the Yemeni people increased because reforms could not be made because they were costly to the Ottoman Empire. Since the discontent of the people could not be resolved, they rebelled even more.
Abdul Hamid II made some reforms to eliminate the authority of Imam Yahya and eased the tax burden of the poor in Yemen and built schools. He tried to put an end to the rebellions by appointing officers who spoke Arabic to Yemen. After the
rebellions of 1882, 1896, 1902, 1904 and 1910. Shortly before World War I; In 1913, the Ottoman Empire was forced to cede some authority to Imam Yahya, who was officially the Zaydi imam. In return, Imam Yahya promised that he would not cooperate with Seyyid Idrisi against the Ottoman Empire. Then, Along with World War I, many wars took place in Yemen.
Imam Yahya period (1918-1948) As the fronts turned into a stalemate in the First World War, Imam Yahya, the Zaydi imam of the time, became worried about what would happen to himself and Yemen. In order to avoid any harm to himself, Imam Yahya began to think of leaving
Lahij to the British and asking for the opening of sea lanes and the stopping of British and Seyyid Idrisi attacks in return. On 30 October 1918, he signed the
Mudros Armistice of the Ottoman Empire. After this situation,
Imam Yahya entered Sana'a and declared the independence of Yemen, and 3 days after independence, Imam Yahya declared himself the ruler of the Zaydi Emirate of Yemen. According to the armistice, the Ottoman Empire was to withdraw from all of Yemen, but the governor of the city, Mahmut Nedim Bey, and the commander of the 40th Division, Galib Bey, did not comply with this order for 45 days. Corps Commander
Ahmet Tevfik Pasha paid a small amount of the soldiers' overdue salaries from the Provincial coffers. Imam Yahya stated that he would not object if the corps decided to surrender the Corps units, and he requested that some of the weapons and ammunition in the troops be given to him as a precaution against possible attacks in the future, but some commanders objected to this. Taiz Operations Regional Commander Ali Sait Pasha took the initiative and went to Aden and met with the British. Since Ahmet Tevfik Pasha took the time to evacuate Yemen, the British ordered VII. The corps and Yahya's delegation sat at the table with the British, but no result came out of this negotiation. Although most of the officers had left, Mahmud Nedim Bey and 200 Ottoman officers were still detained by Imam Yahya in Sana'a. The civil servants who stayed in Yemen repeatedly wrote letters to the governments of Istanbul and Ankara for the payment of their salaries until the Treaty of Lausanne was signed. In a letter dated 13 October 1923, he stated that it was appropriate and necessary for the Yemenis to establish their own administration, that it was not possible to meet the financial demands, but that the necessary experts or civil servants were needed for organization. It was written that Turkey could help, provided that their salaries were paid by the Yemeni administration. They held important positions such as Mahmut Nedim the governor of Sana'a and Ragıp Pasha the minister of foreign affairs. Imam Yahya wanted Mahmud Nedim Bey, whose official duty ended after the
Treaty of Lausanne, to stay in Yemen. However, Mahmud Nedim Bey returned to Turkey in 1924. Then he tried to bring the remaining Turks to Turkey. In 1926, some civil servants returned to Turkey. The Turks who remained in Yemen intermarried with the locals, and most of them were later presumed dead by those in Turkey. , The Imam's royal residence Imam Yahya wanted to realize the
Greater Yemen ideal from the Kasimid period. That's why he declared that he did not recognize the
Violet Line determined by the Ottoman Empire and England in March 1914 and
Greater Yemen began to advance towards the British-controlled
Aden Protectorate in 1919 to realize its ideal, but the Yemenis retreated with the counter-attack of the British army. Coming after the retreating army of Imam Yahya The British army also occupied the port of al-Hudaydah and handed it over to Asir Emirate. After the loss of
Hudaydah, Imam Yahya attacked Aden again in 1922 and advanced to within 50 km of Aden, at this juncture however his forces came under heavy attack by the
British Air Force and thus Imam Yahya's army was compelled to retreat back to the highlands. In order to gain more control over the tribes in Yemen, he waged war against the rebellious Hashid and Bakil tribes in 1922. Since Imam Yahya knew about the brutality of crown Prince Ahmed bin Yahya, he appointed him as a commander in the rebellions. After many clashes between the Hashid bandits and the Victorious Army, the Hashid tribe was defeated. By the order of Prince Ahmed bin Yahya, the army plundered the Hashid tribe and raped many people. After this incident, Imam Yahya ordered the crown Prince Ahmed bin Yahya to arrest the chiefs and sheikhs of the Hashid tribes, collect the captives, and also ask the Hashid tribe to cover the war damages. He ordered him to collect a small amount of taxes and to demolish the houses of those who refused. The arrested Hashid sheikhs and tribal leaders were sent to Ghamdan prison. Everyone except the children was tortured and killed. In 1924, al-Jawf and Bayda tribes rebelled. Thereupon, Imam Yahya sent the New Army led by Sayyid
Abdullah al-Wazir to suppress the rebellion. After establishing his authority over the tribes, Imam Yahya, who wanted to benefit from the struggle for the throne that emerged in the
Emirate of Asir after the death of
Muhammad ibn Ali al-Idrisi in 1923,
captured Hudaydah with troops consisting of tribal members, most of whom were from the Hashid tribe. A number of shrines, considered saints by the inhabitants of Hudaydah, were destroyed by Imam Yahya's army during these conflicts. While Hudaydah was captured, al-Jawf tribes rebelled and the rebellion ended after a short conflict. Then he headed towards Sabya and besieged al-Idrisi's son
Ali bin Idrisi. In 1926, the Imam's army raided tribes that did not recognize him in
Jizan and
Najran Ali bin Idrisi He pledged his allegiance to Imam Yahya on condition that he recognized him as the ruler of Southern Asir But Imam Yahya rejected this offer, claiming that the Idrisis were of Moroccan origin. According to Imam Yahya; Along with the British, the Idrisians were nothing but intruders and had to be permanently expelled from Yemen. This policy was negotiated with the United Kingdom and the
Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd under their pressure. caused him to have problems. In 1926, A dispute broke out between the
Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd and Yemen over the territorial sharing of
Najran. Imam Yahya entered ed-Dali in 1927 to pressure the British in South Yemen and announce that he did not recognize the
Violet Line drawn on land that did not belong to them between the two occupying powers. He began raiding the Aden Protectorate. In response, the British began bombing Yemen, particularly Taiz and Ibb. Yemen was unable to respond and suffered heavy losses because it had no air force or air defense system. Therefore, the imam was forced to stop the raids. Later, Ali Nasir al-Kardey set out with a tribal alliance to capture
Shabwa, which remained south of the Violet Line. The tribes submitted to Imam Yahya without a fight. After the tribes in Shabwa came under the Imam's control, the British began bombing the tribes in Shabwa. The main reason for bombing the tribes was to undermine the Imam's already shaky authority further. With the
Italo-Yemeni Treaty signed in 1926, Italy became the first country to recognize Imam Yahya as the king of all Yemen. Thus, the Imam is especially important in Arab geography.
Saudi-Yemeni War The Idrisis rebelled against Saudi Arabia and
Saudi Arabia soon suppressed the rebellion. Emir Idrisi took refuge in Yemen. That's why Yemen-Saudi Arabia relations began to become tense. Imam Yahya did not comply with the agreement and attacked Najran. Imam Yahya demanded that the administration in Asir be left to al-Idrisi. When an agreement could not be reached with the ambassadors sent by Saudi Arabia, the ambassadors were imprisoned. The United Kingdom signed friendship treaties with both sides to remain neutral but still provided aircraft and weapons aid to Saudi Arabia before the war. The British maintained Yemen's independence for forty years. and although Imam Yahya did not accept the Violet line, he promised not to attack
Aden in exchange for border negotiations. In March 1934,
Abdulaziz ibn Saud ordered his son
Prince Saud to occupy the shadow of Tihama and al-Hudaydah. 20 March 1934' Saudi Arabia officially declared war on Yemen. Thus began the
Saudi-Yemen War. In the war, Yemen had an army of 37,000 and the Saudis had an army of 30,000. At the beginning of the war, the Saudis advanced rapidly and captured Hajara and
Najran on 7 and 21 April, respectively. May 1934, bypassing the Yemen Mountains They captured
al-Hudaydah. After capturing it, they began to plunder the city. When they threatened to plunder the traders from the Dominion of India, they gave up plundering when soldiers from the
Royal Navy arrived to restore order. Famine began to occur in Sana'a. The imam denied rumors that his son was killed while escaping. Yemen is stuck in the city of Sana'a. Neither British nor Italian forces were expected to intervene in the region.
Ibn Saud demanded the imam's abdication, five-year control of the border region and the exile of the former Emir of Asir from Yemen, but Imam Yahya did not accept. Although the Saudis had better weapons, especially tanks, they did not fall to San because Saudi Arabia's soldiers could not adapt to the mountainous region and Yemeni soldiers were more experienced. Ibn Saud decided to make an agreement with Yemen because he was not in a position to continue the war and there was a possibility of a new Muslim Brotherhood rebellion.12 May 1934' Peace talks started in. Ibn Saud claimed that he was not interested in Yemeni lands. He gave up his demand for Imam Yahya's abdication and demanded a 20-year ceasefire. Kingdom of Yemen; He had to leave Najran, Asir and Jizan to the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd. End Saudi troops left Yemen on 7 July. Historian
Hans Kohn writing in Foreign Affairs Magazine noted that some European observers tended to view this conflict as actually a clash of British and Italian interests. He evaluated that although Saudis have ties with England and Yemen with Italy, ultimately the rivalry between the two emirates will not feed the rivalry between the two countries.
Post-war On 15 October 1937, the Italian-Yemen Treaty was extended.
World War II and after Although Imam Yahya was anti-British and close to the
Axis powers, to which the Kingdom of Italy belonged, II. He pursued an
isolationist policy throughout World War II. Although it did not participate in the war, it faced famines in Yemen like Türkiye. In 1943, a major famine occurred in Yemen. Although it was suggested to the Imam to open the state's reserves, he did not accept it. In 1944, the poet Muhammad Mahmud Al-Zubayri, nicknamed the "Father of the Revolution" in the North, returned to Yemen from Egypt, but soon fled to the south and founded the Great Yemen Assembly. In 1945, Yemen became a founding member of the
Arab League. On 4 March 1946, President Harry Truman recognized the Kingdom of Yemen as a sovereign state in a letter to Imam Yahya, the king of Yemen. Ibrahim bin Yahya When his father, Imam Yahya, fell ill in the city of al-Rawda in 1946, he contacted several commanders and tribal leaders and arranged for the Dar Al-Hajar, al-Salalah in the city of Sana'a. He planned to seize power by capturing important points such as the Palace and arresting his father and brother Ali bin Yahya. He showed his plan to people he trusted, such as the poet Ahmed bin Muhammad al-Shami, but no one supported him. Because he was worried that his plan would go to his father, he faked being sick and started rumors that he was going crazy and having epileptic seizures in order to escape from Yemen. Since doctors could not find a solution, they advised his father to be sent to
Ethiopia. They left Yemen with Professor Ahmed al-Burak, who knew English well, to be their translator. After staying in
Asmara for a while, they went to the city of Aden and Ibrahim joined the
Ahrar Party, which was established against his father's rule. On 30 September 1947, Yemen joined the United Nations. In the mid-20th century, most
Yemeni Jews left Yemen and emigrated to the newly established
Israel. In 1948, nearly 100 members of the
Free Yemen Society were arrested for distributing leaflets against authoritarian rule. A small expeditionary force was sent to the
1948 Arab–Israeli War.
Al-Waziri Coup , March 1948 In order to seize power, the Al-Wazirids ambushed Imam Yahya on 17 February 1948 in Savad Hizyaz, south of Sana'a. Ali Kardey's group opened fire on the convoy, which had to stop because of a stone placed in the middle of the road, and Imam Yahya, his grandson and two soldiers were killed. It was said that 50 bullets were found in Imam's body. Then the Al-Waziris appointed
Abdullah Al-Wazir to rule the kingdom. Al-Wazir declared constitutionalism and established a provisional Shura Council. There were sixty prominent scholars and jurists in the parliament, led by
İbrahim bin Yahya. The new government was formed, headed by Ali bin Abdullah, who also included Ahmed Muhammad. Numan as the Minister of Agriculture, Sheikh Muhammad Ahmed Numan as the Minister of Internal Affairs, Muhammad Mahmud al-Zubari as the Minister of Education and Judge Abdullah Al-Agbari as the Minister of State, Hussein Abdul Qadir as the Minister of Defense, Servant Galib al-Wajih as the Minister of Finance, Judge Ahmed al-Agbari as the Minister of Education. Carafi took office as Minister of Economy and Mining and Mr. Ahmed al-Mutaa as Minister of Trade and Industry. Prince Ali bin Yahya Hamideddin was appointed as Minister of State and Judge. Hasan al-Omari was appointed Minister of State. visible in the background "Our father, Imam Yahya Hamideddin, passed away. Ahmed al-Wazir was elected imam and I am the chairman of the Council," written by Ibrahim bin Yahya to Cairo newspapers from Aden. The telegram was sent. Abdullah bin Yahya, who was in London at the time of the coup, denied his father's death and added cryptically: "The circumstances are complex and it is understandable that some exaggerated news is coming out of Yemen." This coup was not welcomed by Arab countries. Especially the Saudis and the remaining Arab kings did not recognize the new government. After the coup, his son
Ahmad bin Yahya traveled around North Yemen, gathered the tribes and Saudi Arabia behind him, and besieged Sana'a with the tribes he gathered. He took control of the city a few weeks later. He allowed the tribes he took behind him to plunder the capital. The sack of Sana'a lasted seven days and is assumed to have involved around 250,000 tribesmen. According to Professor of Political Science and International Relations Bernard Reich, of
George Washington University, Imam Yahya, like his ancestors, could have done better and organized the Zaydi tribes in the northern plateaus against the Turks and British invaders, uniting Yemen and turning it into another cemetery.
Ahmed bin Yahya period (1948–1962) Al-Muradi. The
Zaydi imam,
Yahya Hamid Al-Din, wanted to get rid of him, so he forced him into a battle with the
English in Shabwa, so Al-Muradi returned and killed the imam in 1948. After Imam Yahya was killed in the coup in 1948 son of Imam
Ahmed bin Yahya came to power. His reign was marked by renewed friction with the United Kingdom over the British presence in the south, which stood in the way of its aspirations for increased development, openness and the creation of
Greater Yemen. Ahmed bin Yahya was a little more forward-thinking and more open to foreign relations than his father. Yet his regime, like his father's, was
autocratic; His approval was required even in the most ordinary situations. Due to Ahmed bin Yahya's strictness and fierceness, the Yemenis described him as () at that time, and because of this trait, his father was the one who appointed him. He gave him the task of suppressing the rebellions – especially in Hashid and Tihame. Ahmed bin Yahya, like his father Imam Yahya, had the idea of a Greater Yemen. The British won the conflict. In 1952, Imam Ahmed banned listening to the radio in public places. In March 1955, a coup by a group of military officers and two of Ahmed's brothers deposed the king for a time. However, the coup was quickly suppressed. Ahmed bin Yahya faced increasing pressure from the
Egyptian President
Gamal Abdel Nasser, who was supported by
Arab nationalists and
pan-Arabists, and in April 1956 He also signed a mutual defense agreement with Egypt. In March 1958, Yemen joined the
United Arab States. However, this confederation disintegrated shortly after Syria withdrew from the
United Arab Republic in September 1961 and from the United Arab States in December 1961. After these events, relations between Yemen and Egypt deteriorated. In 1959, the
Soviet Red Cross and Red Crescent Society sent 10,000 tons of wheat to help Yemen overcome the effects of drought.
North Yemen Civil War (1962–1970) Imam Ahmed died in September 1962 and was succeeded by his son
Muhammad al-Badr. Inspired by Nasser's Free Officers movement, Egyptian-trained officers led by the commander of the royal guard, Abdullah al-Sallal, deposed Muhammad al-Badr the year he came to power, took control of Sanaa, and founded the
Yemen Arab Republic. This incident sparked the
North Yemen Civil War. The Imam then fled to the
Saudi Arabia border and launched a counter-attack with the support of the Zaidi tribes in the north to regain control, which soon escalated the civil war. Soviets recognized the
Yemen Arab Republic immediately after these events, on 29 September 1962. Saudi Arabia and
Jordan began to support the monarchists. On 5 October 1962, Prince Hassan established a royalist government in exile in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. There were 55,000 Egyptian soldiers and 3,000 Republicans against the Kingdom Army of 40,447 people. Later, as he increased the number of soldiers to 130,000, he accelerated his loss in the
Six Day War. The Royalists made an agreement with the Yemeni tribes to reduce the numerical superiority of the Republicans, and by 1965 the Royalists had increased to approximately 220,000 people. Egypt began using
chemical weapons in late 1965. On 11 December 1966, two people died and thirty-five people were injured due to fifteen tear gas bombs. On 5 January 1967, 140 people died and 130 people were injured in the gas attack on Kitaf village, the headquarters of Prince Hasan bin Yahya. After these events, the United Kingdom and the United States put pressure on Egypt. Egypt did not accept the allegations and suggested that the reported incidents were probably caused by
napalm, not gas. The
Red Cross was alarmed and issued a statement expressing concern in Geneva on 2 June. The
University of Bern Institute of Forensic Medicine, based on the report of the Red Cross, concluded that the gas was probably halogen derivatives –
phosgene,
mustard gas,
lewisite,
chloride or
cyanogen bromide-. Gas attacks stopped 3 weeks after the Six-Day War. An estimated 1,500 people died and 2,000 were injured due to chemical attacks. Conflicts continued until 1967, when Egyptian troops withdrew. By 1968, after a final royalist siege of Sana'a, an agreement was reached with the Saudis at the Islamic conference in 1970, and the first permanent constitution was adopted on 30 December 1970, consolidating the Republican regime. More than 100,000 people died on both sides during the conflict. Egyptian historians call this civil war "Egypt's Vietnam War" due to the guerrilla warfare tactics used by the monarchists.
Instability and decline Imam Yahya was assassinated in an unsuccessful
coup d'état in 1948, but his son, Imam
Ahmad bin Yahya, regained power several months later. His reign was marked by growing development and openness, as well as renewed friction with the United Kingdom over the British presence in the south, which stood in the way of his aspirations to create a
Greater Yemen. Imam Ahmad was slightly more forward-thinking than his father and was more open to foreign contacts. Nonetheless, his regime, like his father's, was autocratic and semi-medieval in character; even the most mundane measures required his personal approval. In March 1955, a coup by a group of officers and two of Ahmad's brothers briefly deposed the king but was quickly suppressed. Ahmad faced growing pressures, supported by the
Arab nationalist and
pan-Arabist objectives of the President of
Egypt,
Gamal Abdel Nasser, and, in April 1956, he signed a mutual defense pact with Egypt. In March 1958, Yemen joined the
United Arab Republic (a federation of Egypt and
Syria formed in February 1958) in a
confederation known as the
United Arab States. However, this confederation was dissolved in December 1961, soon after Syria withdrew from the United Arab Republic and the United Arab States in September 1961. Relations between Egypt and Yemen subsequently deteriorated. Imam Ahmad died in September 1962 and was succeeded by his son, Crown Prince
Muhammad al-Badr, whose reign was brief. Egyptian-trained military officers inspired by Nasser and led by the commander of the royal guard,
Abdullah as-Sallal, deposed him the same year he was crowned, took control of Sana'a, and created the
Yemen Arab Republic (YAR). This sparked the
North Yemen Civil War and created a new front in the
Arab Cold War, in which Egypt assisted the YAR with troops and supplies to combat forces loyal to the imamate, while the monarchies of
Saudi Arabia and
Jordan supported Badr's royalist forces in opposing the newly formed republic. Conflict continued periodically until 1967 when Egyptian troops were withdrawn. By 1968, following a final royalist siege of Sana'a, most of the opposing leaders had reached a reconciliation, and Saudi Arabia recognized the republic in 1970. == Politics ==