Effects of the 1928 Okeechobee hurricane in Florida

A tropical depression developed almost immediately offshore the west coast of Africa on September 6, near Dakar, Senegal. The depression strengthened into a tropical storm later that day, shortly before passing south of the Cape Verde Islands. Further intensification was halted by late on September 7. However, about 48 hours later, the storm resumed strengthening and became a Category 1 hurricane on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. The system reached Category 4 intensity before striking Guadeloupe on September 12. Around midday on September 13, the storm strengthened into a Category 5 hurricane while moving west-northwestward, peaking with maximum sustained winds of . About six hours later, the system made landfall in Puerto Rico; it remains the only tropical cyclone known to have struck the island as a Category 5 hurricane. After emerging into the Atlantic, the storm weakened slightly, falling to Category 4 intensity, and traversed the Bahamas between September 15 and September 16. The storm maintained Category 4 intensity through its landfall near Palm Beach, Florida, at 00:00 UTC on September 17 with sustained winds of 145 mph (230 km/h). While crossing Florida, the system weakened significantly, falling to Category 1 intensity late on September 17 just north of the Tampa Bay area. Thereafter, the storm curved north-northeastward and briefly re-emerged into the Atlantic on September 18, but soon made another landfall near Edisto Island, South Carolina, with winds of . Early on the following day, the system weakened to a tropical storm and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over North Carolina hours later. The remnants moved northwestward across the Mid-Atlantic region before dissipating over Ontario on September 21. After World War I, South Florida experienced a land boom, which brought new construction and large population increases, including the quadrupling of West Palm Beach's population between 1920 and 1927. However, the land boom began faltering after news spread about the 1926 Miami hurricane and real estate scams. A mud dike averaging only in height surrounded Lake Okeechobee prior to the 1928 hurricane. In 1926, the Miami hurricane breached the southwest side of this dike, devastating Clewiston and Moore Haven and drowning as many as 300 people. Florida chief engineer Fred C. Elliott recognized the necessity of constructing a levee at least since 1920 to prevent flooding around Lake Okeechobee. Congressman Herbert J. Drane also attempted to secure federal authorization and funding for flood control around the lake since 1924 because the state did not have enough funds, but without success. ==Preparations==

Forecasters such as Richard W. Gray, chief meteorologist at the Weather Bureau office in Miami, initially believed that the hurricane would not threaten Florida, predicting on September 12 that the storm would move westward and eventually dissipate over the Yucatán Channel. However, the hurricane instead moved northwestward after striking Puerto Rico. On September 14, a newspaper noted that there "seemed to be a tendency toward a curve eastward," meaning that a landfall in Florida was highly unlikely. A. J. Mitchell of the Jacksonville Weather Bureau office and Gray then reaffirmed predictions that the storm would not threaten the state. Mariano Gutiérrez-Lanza of the Jesuit observatory in Belen, Cuba, agreed and noted that neither Cubans nor Floridians should be concerned about the hurricane. However, that same day, September 14, a weather report received by a wireless station in Jupiter indicated that Florida would experience the storm to some extent. Although The Palm Beach Post began acknowledging on September 15 that the hurricane may strike Florida, Gray remained mostly confident that the storm would not make landfall in Florida and instead predicted that winds would reach only . However, Gray still issued storm warnings from Miami to Titusville and advised taking precautions should the hurricane threaten the southeast Florida. Early on September 16, the Weather Bureau issued a hurricane warning from Miami to Daytona Beach, predicted a landfall near Jupiter, and discussed the potential for strong winds and destructive high tides. The Weather Bureau posted a hurricane warning from Punta Rassa to Cedar Key, stretching it north to Apalachicola on September 17 and extending the hurricane warnings along the east coast to Jacksonville. Despite the initially perceived improbability of landfall in the days preceding the storm's passage, the West Palm Beach chapter of the American Red Cross (ARC) began preparing for the hurricane. West Palm Beach residents prepared by purchasing emergency supplies such as candles, kerosene lamps, and boards. A number of residents boarded up their homes and then secured their ornamental trees and plants. About 500 people each sought shelter at the Gulf Stream Hotel, Palm Beach County Courthouse, and Salvation Army Home, and some 1,000 persons at West Palm Beach's Pennsylvania Hotel. In Jupiter, 20 people stayed in a grocery store and 25 others at a school. A number of black people took shelter in a school building in West Jupiter. At the Lake Okeechobee region, Dr. William J. Buck, likely the only doctor between Pahokee and Moore Haven, questioned the Weather Bureau's early predictions of the storm missing South Florida. Consequently, he and his legionnaires warned area residents about the approaching cyclone. At South Bay, Frank Schuster made several car trips to save 211 people by transporting them to higher ground. Seminoles on the Brighton Seminole Indian Reservation evacuated to higher ground after observing retreating wildlife. A reverend from Okeechobee described traffic leaving the Lake Okeechobee area as making the highways resemble "a one way street" on September 15 and September 16. Hours before the storm struck, many people in the communities surrounding Lake Okeechobee crowded into a house or building they believed was securest, with the Belle Glade Hotel having nearly 150 refugees. Along the west coast of Florida, the threat of the hurricane led to the temporary suspension of shipping at Fort Myers, while the United States Coast Guard moved several vessels into the port. In St. Petersburg, vessel owners moved them to land, nearly emptying three yacht basins. ==Impact==

The Weather Bureau estimated that sustained winds may have exceeded in Lake Worth, Palm Beach, and West Palm Beach. Sustained tropical storm-force winds extended as far south as Key West and stretched to parts of the state's northeast and west coasts, but remained at or less in Apalachicola, Pensacola, and Tampa. That reading was also the lowest recorded on land in the United States at the time. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) estimates that the hurricane caused approximately $25 million ($ in ) in damage. However, an impact survey conducted by Judge E. B. Donnell's committee tallied $33.9 million ($ in ) in damage – exclusively in Palm Beach County – which the ARC regarded as conservative because it does not account for "damage to sea walls, docks, bridges, crops, highways, farm machinery, house furnishings, etc." Furthermore, Florida Governor John W. Martin estimated the hurricane caused $50 million ($ in ) in damage in Palm Beach County alone. Based on wealth normalization, NOAA estimated that nearly $35.3 billion (2010 USD; $ in ) in damage would occur if a similar storm struck in 2010. Because of the hurricane warnings, the death toll in coastal areas remained relatively low. However, NOAA estimated that the hurricane caused at least 2,500 deaths in areas surrounding Lake Okeechobee. Possibly as many as 3,000 fatalities may have occurred, The 1928 Okeechobee hurricane also remains the deadliest weather event on the East Coast of the United States. Kleinberg argued that "the hurricane may have also accounted for the most deaths of black people in a single day in U.S. history." In addition to the human fatalities, the storm killed 48,667 animals. Significant impacts occurred to one of the largest citrus crops on record, with approximately 6% of oranges and 18% of grapefruit lost, respectively. Inundated groves delayed harvesting the remaining crops until mid-October. Communications were also severely affected. Throughout the state, 32,000 households lost telephone service, as the hurricane broke 400 poles and left about 2,500 others leaning. Governor Martin estimated that the storm rendered 15,000 families homeless in Palm Beach County alone. Additionally, about 11,500 families would need to be "re-established", according to the ARC. The organization's official disaster report assessed that the storm damaged over 150 tractors and 32,414 structures in Florida, with 9,860 of those destroyed. Dade and Broward counties The storm produced nearly of rainfall in Homestead, leaving high water that damaged some truck crops and shrubbery. Miami recorded sustained winds of and gusts up to , damaging awnings, plate-glass windows, trees, and vegetation, while interrupting electrical and telegraph services. Heavy rainfall damaged some homes and offices and left some streets in southern Miami impassable. Winds damaged windows and roofs in Fort Lauderdale and Hollywood, but otherwise caused minor impact. In the former, the storm downed power lines, telephone wires, and trees and destroyed car garages, while also deroofing some buildings. Storm surge and abnormally high tides left water along coastal roads in the vicinity of Las Olas Boulevard and sand on the road along the coast to the north of Fort Lauderdale. In Pompano Beach, the Pompano Theater suffered severe damage, while Kester Building, a drug store, and a grocery store experienced impact but to a lesser extent. The cyclone demolished most small frame houses, the post office, and an entire business block in Deerfield Beach, while several citizens estimated about half of all homes were destroyed. Strong winds also blew a freight train off its tracks. At the Cloister Inn, the storm shattered windows and damaged the roof. Further, the hurricane flattened a restaurant, store, and warehouse and tossed 32 Florida East Coast Railway (FEC) freight cars into a nearby ditch. but listed only one death for the city on September 18. The roof of a school's auditorium in Boynton Beach collapsed, injuring 15 people seeking shelter inside the building. A total of 34 businesses received damage and 18 others suffered destruction, including a church, while the storm also demolished 46 dwellings and impaired 255 others. Additionally, currents pushed two barges under the Intracoastal Waterway bridge, pushing it upward by almost . Damage in Boynton Beach totaled approximately $1 million ($ in ). In Lantana, all houses sustained major damage, The bridge crossing the Intracoastal Waterway fell off its turntable and twisted sideways into the water, Along the coast between Delray Beach and Briny Breezes, only minor washouts occurred, while a few homes suffered slight damage in the latter. However, Riddle Engineering president Karl Riddle described the area north of Briny Breezes to just south of the Lake Worth Casino as "completely washed away." with almost all buildings substantially damaged and two people killed. In Lake Worth, a survey reported 600 destroyed homes and 1,500 damaged dwellings, leaving about 700 people homeless. About 25% of workplaces in the commerce district and less than 10% of homes remained unscathed, with approximately 200 businesses damaged and 50 destroyed, including a store and a few churches. The hurricane deroofed the Gulf Stream Hotel, substantially damaged two floors, and deposited up to of sand in the lobby. Other severely damaged buildings included the Scottish Rites Cathedral, the Masonic Temple, a hotel, a car dealership, an investment company, Lake Worth Community High School's auditorium, the Oakley Theater, The Lake Worth Leader newspaper's publishing plant, Consequently, Lauriston building became a temporary city hall, despite also suffering severe roof and water damage. Additionally, nearly of the bridge across the Intracoastal Waterway collapsed. Lake Worth reported about $4 million ($ in ) in damage, roughly $400,000 ($ in ) to city properties (excluding public schools), and three indirect deaths, two from illnesses and one due to apoplexy relating to the storm. West Palm Beach to Jupiter In the week leading up to the hurricane, West Palm Beach observed of precipitation, at least of which fell during the storm. Approximately of rain fell on September 16, setting a daily record for that date. Among the buildings obliterated included a furniture store, pharmacy, warehouse, hotel, school, and ironworks, most of those being wooden-frame structures, while the few concrete-built structures remained standing. Further, winds deroofed a number of other structures, including the Miramar Inn, and the Central Farmers Trust Company, Skylights shattered at the county courthouse and city hall, flooding parts of the interiors. which itself sustained about $60,000 $ in ) in damage after the chimney crashed through 14 floors. The fire station also collapsed, although the fire bell remained intact. Waves washed up mounds of sand and shoulder-high debris across Banyan Boulevard, Clematis Street, and Datura Street to Olive Avenue. Only one business escaped serious damage on Clematis Street, the main commercial thoroughfare of West Palm Beach. At the city library, the storm destroyed more than half of the books and covered the floor with about of water and mud. The roof and equipment in The Palm Beach Post building suffered damage after the chimney fell, while the storm partially demolished the Palm Beach Times building, causing rain to soak the company's machines. However, both newspapers published editions on September 17. The Comeau Building suffered severe damage to its roof tiles. The American Legion building, originally designated as the ARC disaster operations headquarters, received major damage, forcing the organization to set up its relief post at another location. In the black section of the city, the hurricane damaged many homes, which were often constructed of discarded materials. On one street, only two houses retained their walls or roof. Witnesses reported walls and cars cartwheeling down the streets. During the storm, about 100 people ran to a trash incinerator, a concrete-reinforced building. A few black churches suffered heavy damage, with one being destroyed, another suffering $40,000 $ in ) in damage, and a third losing its roof, many bricks on the front façade, and much of the metal grillwork around the entrances. Overall, the hurricane obliterated 1,711 homes and damaged 6,369 others in West Palm Beach, rendering about 2,100 families homeless, while also destroying 268 businesses and impacting 490 others. Damage throughout the city totaled just under $13.8 million ($ in ) and 11 deaths occurred. In Palm Beach, the hurricane damaged some buildings constructed by Henry Flagler and his workers. the botanical garden, and the roof of the golf club, and inundated the golf course with several inches to several feet of water. Between The Breakers and the Royal Poinciana Hotel, strong winds toppled many Australian pine trees along the pathway linking the two hotels. These hotels recorded more than $1.5 million ($ in ) in damage combined. Waves inundated and carried away vegetation at J. Leonard Replogle's estate. Edward T. Stotesbury's El Mirasol and Rodman Wanamaker's La Querida – later John F. Kennedy's "Winter White House" – sustained heavy damage. The Billows, Palm Beach, and Royal Daneli hotels reported broken windows and water damage, Nearby, the storm damaged the Rainbow Pier's railings and blew its office away. At Worth Avenue, the cyclone damaged stores and washed boats ashore, some of which felled trees. The storm washed out approaches to the Southern Boulevard and Royal Park bridges. The FEC bridge lost its railing, but remained partially open to traffic. In Riviera Beach, the storm destroyed 500 homes and impaired another 1,000, while demolishing approximately 100 workplaces and damaging 50 others. Overall, damage in Riviera Beach reached about $750,000 ($ in ). The hurricane partly destroyed a bridge linking Riviera Beach to Singer Island across the Intracoastal Waterway. Kelsey City, now known as Lake Park, reported 200 homes wrecked and 300 others damaged, along with 75 businesses destroyed and an equal number damaged. The storm flattened the gymnasium and auditorium and nearly destroyed city hall, where many residents had sought refuge. Damage in Kelsey City totaled about $1 million ($ in ). In Jupiter, the hurricane obliterated 50 dwellings and impacted 425 others, while demolishing 6 businesses and damaging 13 others. Storm surge and tides left waist-deep water in some areas and swept away a pavilion, some boathouses, and a boat at a boathouse. Strong winds also knocked over telephone poles, cars, seventeen windmills at the Pennock Plantation, and two towers at the Naval Radio Station Jupiter Inlet. Near the lighthouse, the former Weather Bureau building and a house collapsed, killing several people. Six other fatalities occurred in West Jupiter after the storm demolished a school that people had sought shelter in. Damage in Jupiter totaled approximately $900,000 ($ in ). Lake Okeechobee region Inland, the cyclone wreaked widespread destruction along the southeast and north coasts of Lake Okeechobee. Although residents received warnings earlier in the day to evacuate from low-lying areas, many people believed it had missed after not arriving on schedule. Heavy rainfall in the weeks prior to September 10 caused the lake to rise and filled nearby canals and ditches. Additionally, precipitation from the hurricane itself resulted in the level of Lake Okeechobee increasing further. When the worst of the storm crossed the lake, intense winds caused a storm surge to breach the small dikes at the southern end of the lake, inundating approximately of land, Consequently, floodwaters swept buildings and houses off their foundations and carried survivors and victims into the Everglades, where many bodies were never recovered. One home remained standing in Bean City and at least a dozen people perished there. Will noted that only four tall royal palm trees and piles of rubble remained of Sebring Farms, while just six out of sixty-three people sheltered inside a house survived. Only the Bolles Hotel withstood the hurricane in Miami Locks (today known as Lake Harbor). Ninety-nine people died in that town, as did many animals. In Chosen, only two people escaped a house that sheltered nineteen people. A store lost its roof during the storm, forcing its occupants to move into the restroom. A house filled with refugees floated about from its original location; the occupants remained unaware that the dwelling was moving until it collided with a railroad embankment. A total of 23 people died in Chosen as a result of the hurricane. The ARC confirmed 611 fatalities in Belle Glade, the most deaths of any city by far. After the dikes lining Lake Okeechobee failed, water reached at least above ground in portions of Belle Glade. At the Glades Hotel, floodwaters rose so rapidly that the last two people to reach the second floor nearly drowned in the stairwell, although the structure remained the only building in the city left intact. The Belle Glade Hotel's first floor also flooded, forcing its occupants up to the second floor, who later became exposed to winds and rain after the roof blew off. Nearby, a building containing a restaurant, a furniture store, and a drugstore was deroofed; the occupants seeking shelter there fled to the Glades Hotel. The Tampa Daily Times noted in October 1928 that "there is hardly a livable house in the town. One small store is in operation." Farther east, water reached in height at the Everglades Experiment Station, destroying all crops there. The anemometer observed a sustained wind speed of before its destruction, deroofing all buildings except two bungalows and the service house for the greenhouse. Additionally, the storm destroyed a garage, two labor cabins, and a five-room bungalow, as well as a portion of the greenhouse. Damage at the experiment station alone reached nearly $35,000 ($ in ). likely experienced floodwaters only up to above ground, limiting damage, although one man died in the former from heart problems following the destruction of his home. As the rear eyewall passed over Lake Okeechobee, the wave action reversed itself, breaking the dikes along the north shore and causing a similar but less devastating flood. Along Conners Highway, water swept the bridge crossing the Onosohatchee River near Taylor Creek upstream about . In Okeechobee County, storm surge severely impacted or destroyed homes near the shore of the lake, including in Okeechobee, where residences and three-story business buildings also suffered significant damage due to winds of at least . However, brick- and concrete-structured dwellings received little impact. Overall, the cyclone caused at least 27 deaths in Okeechobee County, Along the southwestern shore of Lake Okeechobee, the towns of Clewiston and Moore Haven also flooded, but much of the damage to houses occurred due to strong winds. In the former, the hurricane reduced some railroad tracks to "a twisted ribbon of steel," according to Robert Mykle. Floodwaters persisted for several weeks, greatly impeding attempts to clean up the devastation. In fact, water levels increased in some areas during the weekend after the cyclone due to the hurricane producing heavy rains in the vicinity of the Kissimmee River, which flows into Lake Okeechobee, re-flooding most of the passable roads. On October 23, over five weeks following the storm, Florida National Guard Major B. M. Atkinson reported of standing-water along the side of the roads to Belle Glade, Okeechobee, and South Bay. Elsewhere of the hurricane moving away from Florida on September 18 In Martin County, a bridge connecting Stuart and Palm City was severely damaged. One fatality occurred in Stuart. The storm left only two homes standing in the black section of Indiantown and tore off a large portion of the roof of the Seaboard Air Line station. Throughout Martin County, five deaths and about $4 million ($ in ) in damage occurred, mostly to citrus crops. and ruined about 85% of crops in Fellsmere. In the interior areas of Central and North Florida, agriculture usually sustained the heaviest losses, particularly citrus, though some wind damage occurred to structures. The storm toppled at least 260 telephone poles in Highlands and Polk counties combined. In the latter, windows shattered at business buildings, signs toppled, several roofs and chimneys suffered damage, One person perished in Bartow. Winds gusting up to lashed Lakeland, uprooting many trees and damaged several buildings, including the gymnasium at Florida Southern College (FSC) and the hospital. The trees in the citrus grove surrounding FSC lost much of their fruit. Overall, Lakeland suffered about $50,000 ($ in ) in damage. Scores of small boats and fishing smacks were beached along the waterfront in Fort Myers, which recorded sustained winds of . The Cuban schooner Isabel Alvado sank offshore Boca Grande. The Coast Guard rescued the crew, composed of immigrants, and later deported them. Winds and rain in Tampa forced nearly all cigar factories to close due to too much moisture entering the buildings. In St. Petersburg, a car garage lost a large section of its roof and some tree branches fell onto electrical wires. Along the Gulf Coast of Florida, telephone lines fell down at least as far north as Brooksville. The storm caused one death in Orange City. Daytona Beach observed sustained wind speeds around , uprooting trees, downing signboards, and damaging roofs. The Halifax River crested at a then-record height, inundating Beach Street. One fatality occurred in Palatka. Jacksonville observed sustained winds up to , nearly of rainfall, and its lowest barometric pressure since 1898, downing some power lines, disrupting street car service, ==Aftermath==

In the immediate aftermath of the storm, available cots and blankets were set up in the churches, courthouses, public buildings, schools, warehouses, and other buildings used as shelters. The Gulf Stream Hotel in Lake Worth became a temporary hospital. A total of 1,274 people slept in shelters in West Palm Beach on September 17, a number which grew until peaking at over 5,500 people on September 20. Roughly the same number of displaced persons stayed at private dwellings. In response to a request to the United States Army, personnel at Fort McPherson in Georgia sent 2,000 cots and 1,000 blankets to the relief centers in eight communities in Palm Beach County. Many other cots and blankets were later transported to the area. A number of winter residents allowed their homes to be used as shelters. Due to health risks associated with stagnant water and dead animals and humans, state, local, and ARC health officials conducted sanitation and vaccination programs. W. A. Claxton, chief of the Miami Department of Public Welfare, requested antitoxin, typhoid serum, and at least 200 tetanus serums. The Florida Department of Health granted the request. Of the inoculations distributed, there were 10,349 for typhoid, 1,025 for smallpox, and 337 for tetanus. A health bulletin issued on September 28 indicated that due to vaccinations and other efforts by state and local health departments, no outbreak of communicable diseases occurred. Overall, 210 doctors and 78 nurses worked in the disaster area, each accumulating more than 50 hours of service. Many other people and organizations contributed to relief efforts. A group of men with trucks headed northward from Miami to clear trees and other debris from the roads, reaching West Palm Beach on September 17. Despite damage to many railroad stations south of Kelsey City, train service resumed on that day, with a train from Miami on the following morning carrying 20 doctors and 20 nurses to West Palm Beach. Railroad companies suspended fares for storm victims until October 4, a service used by 1,427 people. After that day, the ARC paid fares for people who remained destitute. At least 100 people were brought to Miami for medical treatment. Every Catholic church in the United States contributed a portion of their offering on November 18, with $84,200 ($ in ) in aid given to Florida, and Masonic lodges nationwide collectively donated over $107,000 ($ in ). Palm Beach casino owner E. R. Bradley, banker J. P. Morgan, and the San Francisco city council each donated $10,000 ($ in ) to ARC, while gubernatorial candidate Doyle E. Carlton collected about $10,000 ($ in ) in Tampa and distributed the money to people in Okeechobee. Issaquena County, Mississippi, among the most ravaged by the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, also contributed money. A West Palm Beach creamery quickly distributed of milk. The Palm Beach County Farm Loan Fund offered eligible farmers $300 loans ($ in ) with a 5% interest rate. In Miami, WQAM hosted a fundraiser that included live entertainment from a Shriners band, collecting about $1,000 ($ in ) for hurricane victims. The city of Miami also donated 2 tanks of chlorine, 20 barrels of disinfectant, 24 lanterns, and 5,000 paper cups. Following reports of looting, West Palm Beach Police Chief Frank H. Matthews ordered a sunset-to-sunrise curfew, unless a person possessed a pass or permit signed by Matthews, his assistant, or the ARC, Palm Beach officials declared martial law on September 19 after several mansions were robbed but rescinded it the following day. Palm Beach County Sheriff Robert C. Baker ordered checkpoints along the main highways at Lake Worth and Jupiter. in West Palm Beach|alt=Image at a cemetery showing a burial ceremony Southern Bell and AT&T quickly began work on restoring telephone service, sending workers from their centers in Atlanta and Jacksonville, respectively. The companies shipped about 225 tons of copper wire, 20 rail car-loads full of poles, and another with switchboards. By the morning of September 18, water service was restored in central West Palm Beach and expected to expand to other areas of the city quickly. Concerns spread about possible contamination from the Lake Okeechobee region after the city's water source, Clear Lake, overflowed. However, officials reported that a high ridge separated the former and the latter for a distance of approximately , with runoff from Lake Okeechobee instead flowing through canals. Tests also confirmed the potability of the city's drinking water. While restoring electricity in West Palm Beach, a lineman was electrocuted on November 1. On September 19, West Palm Beach Mayor Vincent Oaksmith ordered all able-bodied men to work toward relief efforts; the Delray Beach City Council issued a similar directive. Initially, rebuilding in West Palm Beach was slow. On September 20, the West Palm Beach City Commission voted to fine individuals up to $500 ($ in ) and imprison them for a maximum of 30 days if they price gouged and to allow the city treasurer to authorize an in advance requisition payment of $50,000 ($ in ) to the ARC. The city issued 3,165 permits for building and major repairs between October 1 and June 30, 1929, and condemned many severely damaged buildings for demolition in October 1928. However, 300 condemned structures remained standing until June 1930, when the city manager was finally authorized to execute the order. In October 1928 alone, local officials approved permits for repair work projects exceeding $2 million ($ in ) for Palm Beach and West Palm Beach combined. Approximately 50 men shoveled sand off Ocean Boulevard in Palm Beach and cut down damaged palm trees. Mayor Barclay Harding Warburton I predicted in September 1928 that the hurricane would not impact on tourism during the upcoming winter season, but the Royal Poinciana Hotel only partly reopened. Because of disabled vehicles, flooded roads, and limited food and water supplies at the south shore Lake Okeechobee communities, Dr. William Buck, likely the only doctor between Pahokee and Moore Haven, ordered nearly 200 women and children to walk to West Palm Beach – a distance of approximately – seen as their best chance for survival. After several miles, the women and children encountered ambulances from West Palm Beach. Dr. Buck also delegated volunteers to clear the roads near Lake Okeechobee and break into the ice house, a source of fresh water. By the afternoon of September 20, they cleared the roads from Belle Glade to the agricultural station, Chosen, and South Bay. Later, in collaboration with United States Coast Guard personnel from Fort Lauderdale, they cleared the road between Belle Glade and Pahokee, with workers piling debris up to above the ground. Governor John W. Martin, along with Florida Attorney General Fred Henry Davis, chief engineer Fred C. Elliott, and Florida Adjutant General Vivian B. Collins, assessed the disaster area in the communities along Lake Okeechobee beginning on September 22. After the conclusion of the tour, Martin telegraphed every mayor in Florida to aid the victims of the storm and apologized for not issuing that appeal sooner. Martin also described the scene: Belle Glade rebuilt throughout the next 10 years, including a new town hall in 1929. However, Chosen, Fruitcrest, Okeelanta, and the island communities of Lake Okeechobee never recovered. Additionally, the construction of the Herbert Hoover Dike stunted economic growth in Canal Point due to a significant decrease in boating traffic. Plans to build a Hollywood-esque city in Martin County featuring a movie studio called Picture City fell through following the 1928 hurricane and subsequent economic collapse. A bridge connecting Stuart and Palm City remained closed for months; a temporary ferry service provided transportation across the St. Lucie River until repairs were completed in the summer of 1929. West Palm Beach, for example, adopted the Florida Building Officials' conference guidelines in October 1928, which included new requirements for using concrete, tightening masonry walls with a reinforced band course, and fastening roofs to walls. American Red Cross A total of 3,390 ARC volunteers assisted with relief efforts. Overall, individual contributions to the organization reached almost $5.9 million ($ in ), while the ARC itself spent about $50,000 ($ in ) of its own funds. Many donations to the organization came after New York City Mayor Jimmy Walker and President Calvin Coolidge bought a full-page advertisement in The New York Times. The ARC expenditures included about $1.3 million ($ in ) for building and repairs, $346,300 ($ in ) for household goods, $157,300 ($ in ) for clothing, $137,000 ($ in ) for food, $121,200 ($ in ) for agricultural supplies and equipment, $115,500 ($ in ) for family aid and service registration, $115,000 ($ in ) for field expenses, $83,200 ($ in ) for general tool and equipment expenses, $71,800 ($ in ) for medical services, $66,800 ($ in ) for grants to local chapters, $60,300 ($ in ) for relief camps, $45,900 ($ in ) for rescue work, $39,800 ($ in ) for boarding and lodging of storm victims, $19,900 ($ in ) for other miscellaneous expenses, $11,000 ($ in ) for the transportation of storm victims, and $5,000 ($ in ) for the Junior Red Cross. Many local ARC chapters in Florida sheltered refugees, donated goods and supplies, or otherwise provided assistance to storm victims. In Dade County, the Miami Red Cross Citizens Relief Committee was established and provided "hundreds of loaves of bread, gallons of milk, pounds of coffee and sugar, blankets, cots, and medical supplies.", according to the Miami Herald. Around 75% of the fatalities were among migrant farm workers, most of whom were black people. The Florida National Guard ordered many black men, at gunpoint, to collect bodies, fatally shooting one man, Coot Simpson, for refusing to do so. Despite Prohibition laws at the time, those searching and collecting bodies received rations of bootleg whiskey, provided by a local rum-runner. The body collectors received gloves that were regularly disinfected. They would usually tie about half a dozen bodies together by the ankle and then load them onto trucks. After the truck departed, the men received their ration of whiskey. This process continued day and night until October, while the search for bodies stopped on November 1 because of a lack of funds to continue doing so. Due to racial segregation at the time, the coffins provided were used for the white victims, most of whom received a proper burial at Woodlawn Cemetery in West Palm Beach. including about 1,600 in Port Mayaca, 674 at the pauper's cemetery, at least 22 in Miami Locks (now known as Lake Harbor), 28 in Ortona, and 22 in Sebring. There were also unconfirmed reports of bodies buried at Loxahatchee. During the next several decades, the black mass burial site in West Palm Beach remained largely forgotten by the public. The city later sold the property, which switched ownership multiple times over the years. In 1991, the property was owned by a private individual when the Sankofa Society conducted a blessing ceremony at the site, well-publicized by the local media. Around that time, Robert Hazard, a resident of West Palm Beach, established the Storm of '28 Memorial Park Coalition Inc. to fight for recognition of the black victims of the storm. In December 2000, the city of West Palm Beach purchased the land back for $180,000 (2000 USD; $ in ). The site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2002 and a historical marker was added in 2003 during the 75th anniversary of the hurricane. Economic aftermath Before the storm, the Florida land boom had already been faltering due to corrupt real estate deals and the 1926 Miami hurricane. Potential investors and buyers became skeptical about purchasing land in Florida. In West Palm Beach, real estate costs dropped 53 percent to $41.6 million (1930 USD; $ in ) between 1929 and 1930 and further to only $18.2 million (1935 USD; $ in ) by 1935. Prior to the Wall Street Crash of 1929, several hotels in the area declared bankruptcy, attempted to find new investors, or changed names and management. Kristin Sweeting stated in The Bradenton Herald that "by January 1929, the dream of the Florida life had been blown away with loss: the loss of life, land value, life savings and the potential for more devastation from future storms." The federal and state governments expended roughly $7 million (1929 USD; $ in ), $19 million ($ in ) for eradication efforts and banned fruits and vegetables from leaving a quarantine zone, which comprised roughly 34% of Florida's land and almost 75% of its citrus crops. Tourism also saw a serious decline in the aftermath of the 1928 hurricane and subsequent Great Depression. but the region remained in an abysmal financial state until the United States entered World War II. Because of the collapsing economic boom and increasing publicity surrounding the corrupt real estate deals, the severity of the disaster in Southeast Florida was sometimes downplayed. For example, G. A. Nash of the Tampa Board of Trade sent a telegram to the United States Chamber of Commerce in Washington, D.C., on September 17, informing them that "reports of storm damage greatly exaggerated. Damage negligible and confined almost entirely to Palm Beach section." and that "exaggerated reports unfair and will do Florida great harm." The board even considered protesting news agencies that wrote "exaggerated" reports and warned that there would be requests for retraction. The Tampa Morning Tribune owner, Peter O. Knight, described the hurricane as "trivial." Knight received harsh criticism for marginalizing the disaster, with Palm Beach County Red Cross Chairman Howard Selby responding with a telegram stating, "If you serve as a spokesman for the entire state, won't you kindly make a personal visit here?," while the Okeechobee News called Knight "a jackass." Herbert Hoover Dike speaking at the dedication ceremony in Clewiston in 1961|alt=A man (former President Herbert Hoover), speaking behind a podium To prevent a recurrence of natural disasters such as the 1926 Miami and 1928 Okeechobee hurricanes, the Florida Legislature established the Okeechobee Flood Control District during its 1929 session, following congressional testimony from Bror G. Dahlberg, Davis, Eliott, Congressmen Herbert J. Drane and William J. Sears, former Congressman Walter F. Lineberger, and U.S. Senator Park Trammell. The Okeechobee Flood Control District also received authorization to collaborate with the United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) on flood control initiatives. After President Herbert Hoover's visit to South Florida in February 1929, the USACE created a new plan that called for the construction of floodway channels, control gates, and large levees lining the shores of Lake Okeechobee. This long-term system was designed to facilitate flood control, conserve water, block saltwater, and protect fish and wildlife populations. a base width of , and a top width of – almost completely encloses the lake, except at Fisheating Creek, the only remaining free-flowing tributary of Lake Okeechobee. Studies as far back as the 1980s indicated long-term problems with piping and erosion. Leaks have been reported after several heavy rain events. Next, the construction firm Treviicos inserted approximately of cutoff wall into the Hoover Dike between December 2016 and late 2022, effectively creating a dam inside a dam. That year, TCPalm noted that a USACE inspection revealed that the dike "is safer today than it has ever been going into a storm." ==See also==