According to scholars such as Henrik Sørensen, Esoteric Buddhism emerged in India out of
Mahayana Buddhist ritual and magical practices. Esoteric teachings followed the
Silk Road and the Southeast Asian Maritime trade routes into China, linking Chinese Buddhism with Indian, South Asian and
Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism. The use of mantras and dhāraṇīs dates at least to the 2nd century. Tantric materials with mantras and dharanis begin to appear in China during the fifth century. Early Chinese Buddhists include the like of
Zhu Lüyan, who translated the first text containing dhāraṇīs, the
Modengqie jing (T.D. no. 1300). Others such as
Fotudeng (d. 348) served Chinese emperors with mantras and rituals. The use of mandalas () in China as goes back to the sixth century. While these elements were present, it is with the rise of esoteric Buddhism during the Tang dynasty that a full ritual system arose.
Tang dynasty The
Tang dynasty saw the growth to prominence of Chinese Tantric Buddhism. Early Tang translators such as
Atikūta,
Bodhiruci,
Yijing, and
Manicintana worked on esoteric texts promoting mantras and dharanis such as the
Collection of Coded Instructions (; ; T. 901), early versions of the
Heart-dhāraṇī of Avalokiteśvara-ekadaśamukha Sūtra, the and various sutras related to
Amoghapāśa translated by Bodhiruci which contain the
Mantra of Light. These early esoteric works focus on
dharani recitation (and sometimes add the use of images, altars, mandalas or visualization). Koichi Shinohara has argued that the earliest layer consisted of sutras that promoted simple recitation of dharanis and that more complex elements (such as use of images, complex arrangements of mandalas, etc) were added to this core practice over time. The complexity of the rituals continued to increase until reaching the "full" or "pure"
tantric texts like the
Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra. Goble also argues that the reason that Tantric Buddhism became popular in this period lies in the similarity between their Buddhist rituals and pre-existing Tang state rites which were supposed to support the emperor by granting political stability and imperial longevity. Amoghavajra assisted the Tang dynasty state against the An Lushan rebellion. He carried out Vajrayana rituals which were ostensible effective in supernaturally attacking and destroying An Lushan's army including the death of one of An Lushan's generals, Zhou Zhiguang. Amoghavajra used his rituals against An Lushan while staying in Chang'an when it was occupied in 756 while the Tang dynasty crown prince and Xuanzong emperor had retreated to Sichuan. Amoghavajra's rituals were explicitly intended to introduced death, disaster and disease against An Lushan. As a result of Amoghavajrya's assistance in crushing An Lushan, Estoteric Buddhism became the official state Buddhist sect supported by the Tang dynasty, "Imperial Buddhism" with state funding and backing for writing scriptures, and constructing monasteries and temples. The disciples of Amoghavajra did ceremonies for the state and emperor. Tang dynasty Emperor Suzong was crowned as
cakravartin by Amoghavajra after victory against An Lushan in 759 and he had invoked the Acala vidyaraja against An Lushan. The Tang dynasty crown prince Li Heng (later Suzong) also received important strategic military information from Chang'an when it was occupied by An Lushan though secret message sent by Amoghavajra. There is less information about the Tantric Buddhists that came after Amoghavajra, like his descendants
Huilang and
Huiguo. Prajña (; 744–) was one of the last great translators of the Tang, known for his translation of the
Gaṇdavyūha sūtra. Despite lacking the strong patronage it enjoyed under Emperor Daizong (r. 762–779), there is evidence that Zhenyan practices and rituals continued to be a key part of Chinese Buddhism throughout the ninth century. Even after the
Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution (845 CE) initiated by
Emperor Wuzong of Tang, the Zhenyan tradition continued to transmit and practice the yoga of Mantrayana well into the early Song Dynasty, as shown by the records of Japanese pilgrims.
Influence Due to this newfound influence and prestige, Esoteric Buddhism strongly influenced the rest of
Chinese Buddhism during the
Tang dynasty. This prestige also drew East Asian pilgrims to esoteric centers such as
Qinglong Temple (青龍寺) and
Daxingshan Temple (大興善寺). The Mantrayana tradition also influenced other Chinese Buddhist schools like
Huayan,
Tiantai,
Chan Buddhism and
Pure Land Buddhism, through the adoption of mantras,
dhāraṇīs, ritual forms as well as the construction of altars. This prestige also influenced the popularization of esoteric deities such as various forms of Avalokiteśvara and Vajrapāṇi which became the focus of wider devotion. In Chinese Buddhism there was no major distinction between exoteric and esoteric practices and the
Northern School of Chan even became known for its esoteric practices of
dhāraṇīs and
mantras. Śubhakarasiṃha's most eminent disciple,
Yi Xing, who was an influential Zhenyan figure in his own right, later practiced
Chan Buddhism. The followers of the Baotang school of Chan, founded by
Baotang Wuzhu also seem to have had a strong affiliation with the Zhenyan tradition. On the other hand, while the
East Asian Yogācāra school of Xuanzang and the Tiantai of
Zhiyi already included certain esoteric practices and texts before the rise of Tang Mantrayana, the influence of esoteric elements of these schools seems to have grown during the era of Tang esoterica. There is also evidence that esoteric Buddhist practices also influenced developments in
Taoism. The growth of esoteric practice in the Tang era is also evident outside the Chinese heartland such as in
Dunhuang,
Central Asia,
Yunnan and
Nanzhao.
Spread outside China Before the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution, Master
Kūkai (774–835), also known as Kōbō Daishi, came to Tang China from Japan to learn the complete esoteric teachings expounded by the three Indian masters. Kōbō Daishi was taught by the great Master
Huiguo (746–805; Japanese: Keika). It is claimed that he learned the complete teachings in two years before returning to Japan. The transmission to Japan later became
Shingon Buddhism (真言宗), which is often referred to in Chinese as Dōngmì (東密), "Eastern Esoterica", because Japan is east of China geographically. The term (in Japanese,
tōmitsu) refers to the temple
Tō-ji (東寺, literally
Eastern Temple) at
Kyoto, Japan, where Kōbō Daishi established the
Shingon school of Buddhism. Esoteric Buddhism was also present in the Khitan
Liao dynasty and the Tangut
Western Xia. The Xia in particular adopted Tibetan Buddhist influences and produced many translations into the
Tangut language and artistic works, many of which have been preserved in the findings at
Khara-Khoto. Following the Liao, the
Jin dynasty saw a continuation of the forms of Buddhism that existed in the Liao.
Yuan dynasty Vajrayana Vajrayana had also become the major religion of Tibet and the
Western Xia by the time of the rise of the
Mongol Empire in the thirteenth century. As the
Tibetan and
Tangut peoples came under the rule of Mongol leaders during the reign of
Möngke Khan (1209–1259), they increased their missionary activity in Mongolian lands, eventually converting the leadership and much of the population as well aiding in the translation of Buddhist texts into Mongolian. So it is no surprise that after the
Mongol conquest of China and their establishment of the
Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), the Yuan emperors made
Tibetan Buddhism the official religion of China, and Tibetan monks (or, as they were called in Chinese, "barbarian monks from the West", ) were given patronage at the court. Lamas of the
Sakya school like
Sakya Pandita and also of the
Kagyu became imperial preceptors of the Mongol Khans. The tantric deity
Mahakala was used in military campaign to protect the armies during their war against China and became the protector deity of the Yuan state. They were granted unprecedented status and privileges such as temple offerings and shrines. The introduction of "the secret teaching of supreme bliss" (
tantric sexual practice) caused quite a scandal among Chinese literati. A common perception among some Chinese was that this patronage of lamas caused corrupt forms of tantra to become widespread. When the Mongol Yuan dynasty was overthrown and the
Ming dynasty was established, the Mongol sponsored lamas were expelled from the court and Vajrayana Buddhism was denounced by some as not being an orthodox path. It was demonized as a form of sorcery and licentiousness that led to the downfall of the Yuan. However, despite these attacks Tibetan Vajrayana continued to spread in China after the downfall of the Yuan. The rulers of the Ming were also enthusiastic about Tibetan tantric Buddhism. Many translation of Tibetan texts into Chinese were also made during the Yuan and texts associated with Sakya
lam bras teachings have been identified as having been disseminated during the Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1912) periods, and in the Republic of China (1912–1949).
Ming and Qing dynasties canon ,
Chengde. During the
Ming dynasty (1368–1644), the emperors such as the
Yongle Emperor (r. 1402–1424) continued to support and invite Tibetan lamas to court, including
Deshin Shekpa, 5th Karmapa Lama. Tibetan Buddhism thus continued to spread among the elite and the wider populace. The rule of the Yongle emperor also saw the carving of printing blocks for the first printed
Kangyur known thus far, known as "the Yongle Kanjur". This was the earliest and one of the most authoritative versions of the Tibetan canon, and it contributed to the further spread of Tibetan Buddhism in China, Tibet and Mongolia. There were also many translations of Tibetan tantric works into Chinese during this period. Another edition of the Tibetan canon was further printed in
Beijing in 1606. The
5th Dalai Lama visited Beijing during the reign of the
Shunzhi Emperor and likewise
Lobsang Palden Yeshe, 6th Panchen Lama visited the Qianlong emperor during his 70th birthday at
Chengde in 1780 showing the importance of Tibetan Buddhism during this era. To mark the occasion, the
Qianlong Emperor had the
Xumi Fushou Temple built in Tibetan style and showered the Panchen Lama with riches. The Tibetan style
Puning Temple and
Putuo Zongcheng Temple were also built during the reign of the Qianglong Emperor. The Qianglong Emperor was also a promoter of the arts which flourished in his reign, and he was particularly fond of Tibetan
thangkas. The wars and rebellions which racked the later Qing saw the weakening of state-sponsored esoteric Buddhism. Robert Gimello has observed that in late imperial China esoteric dharani practices continued and esoteric practices associated with
Cundī were extremely popular among both the populace and the elite.
Modern era Lama (能海喇嘛, 1886–1967)
Tibetan Buddhism During the
Republic of China (1912–1949), the government believed that esoteric Buddhism had become weakened after the Tang and thus sought to revitalize it by returning to either Tibet or Japan to revitalize Chinese Buddhism. During this period, Tibetans traveled to China to teach, and Chinese monks traveled to Tibet to study, including influential monks like
Nenghai (能海喇嘛, 1886–1967) and Master Fazun (法尊, 1902–1980), who played major roles in the spread of Tibetan Buddhism and translation of scriptures into modern Chinese. These two figures, both of the
Gelug school, were key in what is known as the "Chinese Tantric Buddhist Revival Movement" (). Chinese Buddhists like Dayong (1893–1929) also went also to Japan to learn and bring back the complete teachings of Tang Mysteries passed down in Tendai and Shingon Buddhism. Fahai Lama also built a monastery for
nuns on
Tianmu Mountain in
Zhejiang. According to Dan Smyer Yü's recent monograph on the subject, Tibetan Buddhism is currently experiencing a revival in certain regions such as
Qinghai and
Sichuan, which he describes as "trans-cultural, cross-regional, tech-savvy, conversant with modern science and familiar with the economic system". Gray Tuttle has noted that
Mount Wutai has experienced a growth of religious activity since the 1990s, led by Han, Tibetan and Mongol followers of Tibetan Buddhism. Temples, monasteries and stupas have been built or repaired in the area. There are also some newer Chinese tantric Buddhists that do not have direct association with traditional institutions, one of the most successful (and controversial within other organized Buddhist groups) being
Lu Sheng-yen's
True Buddha School, a
new religious movement that identifies as Vajrayana Buddhist while also adopting local Chinese and Taiwanese popular religious ideas.
Chinese Buddhism of a Yujia Yankou ritual performing a mudrā while wearing a Five Buddha crown adorned with images of the
Five Tathāgatas In contemporary times, esoteric traditions are deeply embedded in mainstream
Chinese Buddhism and expressed through various rituals which make use of tantric
dhāraṇīs,
mudrās,
maṇḍalas and the veneration of certain tantric deities like
Cundi and
Acala. One example of esoteric teachings still practiced in many Chinese Buddhist monasteries is the
Śūraṅgama Sūtra and the
dhāraṇī revealed within it, the
Śūraṅgama Mantra, which are especially influential in the
Chinese Chan tradition. Another example is the popular
Yujia Yankou ritual, where monastics take on the role of a
vajrācārya and performs
deity yoga through the usage of
mantras,
mudrās and
maṇḍala offerings in order to help facilitate the nourishment and ultimate liberation of all
sentient beings. This ritual is commonly performed during or at the end of regular religious temple events such as
repentance rites,
Buddha recitation retreats, the dedication of a new monastic complex or gatherings for the transmission of
monastic vows. It is also widely performed as a post-mortem rite within Chinese society during funerals and other related occasions such as the
Ghost Festival. A related ritual that also involve esoteric practices is the extensive
Shuilu Fahui ceremony, which involves setting up
maṇḍalas of esoteric deities such as the
Ten Wisdom Kings as well as the invocation of those deities to the ritual space via
mantras,
mudrās and visualization.
Neo-Zhenyan in
Shanghai,
China, has adopted the Zhenyan tradition in modern times. In contemporary China, Taiwan, and elsewhere in East Asia where Chinese populations are prevalent, there is an ongoing revival of Tang Esoteric Buddhism. The majority of this revival has been spearheaded by Chinese Buddhists who have re-imported esoteric practices and teachings from Japanese Shingon. There are also a smattering of centers that have support from
Kongōbu-ji, the head temple of the
Kōyasan Shingon-shū (the school of Shingon Buddhism of
Mount Kōya) and its affiliate temples. The revival is mainly propagated by Chinese Buddhist monks and laypersons who travel to
Mount Kōya to be trained, initiated, and receive dharma transmission as acharyas in the Shingon tradition and who bring the esoteric teachings and practices back to their homeland after their training has ended. One example of temples which have been subject to this revival are
Qinglong Temple in
Xi'an, which is the ancestral temple where
Huiguo originally taught
Kōbō Daishi the esoteric teachings before the latter brought them into Japan. Another example is
Daxingshan Temple, also in Xi'an, where the three patriarchs,
Śubhakarasiṃha,
Vajrabodhi and
Amoghavajra, originally taught esoteric Buddhism.
Jing'an Temple in Shanghai is also a prominent example, being founded by the eminent Republican-era monk Master Chisong (釋持松), who had been initiated into the
Shingon sect and trained as an
acharya. While some of these Chinese acharyas have chosen to officially remain under the oversight of
Kōyasan Shingon-shū or
Shingon-shu Buzan-ha and minister as Chinese branches of Japanese Shingon, many other acharyas have chosen to distinguish themselves from Shingon by establishing their own Chinese lineages after their return from Japan. Members from the latter group, while deriving their orthodoxy and legitimacy from their Shingon masters in Japan, view themselves as re-establishing a distinctly Chinese tradition of Esoteric Buddhism rather than merely acting as emissaries of Japanese Shingon, in the same way that Kūkai started his own Japanese sect of Esoteric Buddhism after learning it from Chinese teachers. Some examples are: • Mantra School Bright Lineage (真言宗光明流), which has branches in Taiwan and Hong Kong. • Samantabhadra Lineage (真言宗普賢流), which is mainly located in Taiwan. • Xiu Ming Society (修明堂), which is located primarily in Hong Kong, but also has branches in Mainland China and Taiwan. • Yuanrong Buddhist Academy (圓融佛學院), located in Hong Kong. • Mount Qinglong Acala Monastery (青龍山不動寺), located in Taiwan. ==Common practices==