China The territorial disputes between India and China result from the
historical consequences of colonialism in Asia and the lack of clear historical boundary demarcations. There was one historical attempt to set a proposed boundary, the
McMahon Line, by
Great Britain during the
1913-1914 Simla Convention. The
Republic of China rejected the proposed boundary. The unresolved dispute over the boundary became contentious after India gained its independence and the People's Republic of China was established. The disputed borders are complicated by the lack of administrative presence in the disputed areas, which are remote.
Sino-Indian border Two governments claim to be the legitimate Chinese government, the
People's Republic of China (PRC) and the
Republic of China (ROC; commonly called "
Taiwan"). They do not recognise the legitimacy of each other. The PRC has actual control of its areas on the India-China border, while the ROC currently has no shared land or maritime border with India. Their views are presented below. The
Line of Actual Control (LAC) is presently the operational border between India and the PRC.
People's Republic of China's position The
Depsang Plains are located on the border of the Indian union territory of
Ladakh and the disputed zone of
Aksai Chin. The
Chinese Army controls most of the plains, while India controls the western portion of the plains. The dispute remains unresolved.
Arunachal Pradesh is a state of India created on 20 January 1972, located in the far northeast. It borders the states of
Assam and
Nagaland to the south, and shares international borders with
Burma in the east,
Bhutan in the west, and China in the north. The majority of the territory is claimed by China, by whom it
South Tibet. The northern border of Arunachal Pradesh reflects the
McMahon Line, a line demarcated by the 1914
Simla Convention between the
United Kingdom and the
Tibetan government. The Simla Convention was never accepted by the Chinese government, and it was also considered invalid by Tibetans due to unmet conditions specified in the treaty. The boundary was not broadly enforced by the Indian government until 1950. Currently, this territory is administered by India.
Republic of China's position Throughout the Cold War, the
Government of the Republic of China had the same understanding of the China-India border dispute as the PRC. In 1962, the
ROC's Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated that they did not recognise the legality of the
McMahon Line. The same year western countries increased pressure on the ROC leader
Chiang Kai-shek to recognise the legality of the McMahon Line in order to isolate
Beijing. However, Chiang dismissed the McMahon Line as an "imperialist imposition on China". In February 1987, India's move to elevate the status of "
Arunachal centrally administered region" to the state of
Arunachal Pradesh was declared null and void by the ROC's Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Ministry, in a formal statement, stated that it did not recognise the "illegal occupation" of ROC territory south of the McMahon Line and that the establishment of "Arunachal Pradesh state" was an illegal act. In 1995, Ambassador
Teng Pei-Yin (the ROC's first representative to India) in response to an Indian member of parliament, stated that the ROC did not recognise the McMahon Line. However, the ROC has not made any statement on the China-India dispute since.
Disputed areas area. The
Chinese Military has an integrated
Western Theater Command across the entire border with India. The
Indian Military has divided the Line of Actual Control into 3 sectors – the
western sector across
Ladakh and the Chinese-held Aksai Chin, the
central sector across
Himachal Pradesh and
Uttarakhand, and the
eastern sector across
Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. Similarly, the
Indian Airforce has a
New Delhi-based
Western Air Command, a
Prayagraj-based
Central Air Command, and a
Shillong-based
Eastern Air Command with several AFS (Air Force Stations/Bases), AGL (Advanced Landing Ground airports) and helipads to cover the LAC. List of disputed areas from west to east along the India-China border: Within the geostrategic context of disputes between India and China, the disputes over
Doklam and the
Ten Degree Channel and
South China Sea shipping lanes are also relevant. Doklam is a dispute between Bhutan and China near the India-Bhutan-China tri-junction. India has sided with Bhutan in the dispute. The area is of strategic importance to all three countries. Doklam lies close to India's
Siliguri "Chickenneck" Corridor where a Chinese military advance of less than would cut off Bhutan, part of
West Bengal and all of
Northeast India, an area containing almost 50 million people. This scenario arose during the war between India and China in 1962. US$5 trillion in annual shipping trade passes through the SLOC and choke points of
Southeast Asia and the South China Sea (SCS). India,
Australia,
Japan and the
United States have comprised the
Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD) to contain China as part of their
Indo-Pacific strategy.
Pakistan Kashmir administered by the republics of Pakistan, India, and China. The conflict over
Kashmir is primarily between India and
Pakistan, with China largely playing a third-party role. Conflict started after the
partition of India in 1947, as both India and Pakistan initially claimed the entirety of the former princely state of
Jammu and Kashmir. In 1963, Pakistan
recognized Chinese sovereignty over the
Trans-Karakoram Tract and Aksai Chin. Pakistan controls approximately 30% of the land including
Jammu and Kashmir and
Gilgit-Baltistan. China controls the remaining 15% of the land, including Aksai Chin and the mostly uninhabited Trans-Karakoram Tract, as well as part of the
Demchok sector.
Sir Creek Sir Creek is a 96 km (60 mi)
tidal estuary in the uninhabited marshlands of the
Indus River Delta on the border between India and Pakistan. It flows into the
Arabian Sea and separates
Gujarat state in
India from
Sindh province in
Pakistan. The long-standing India-Pakistan Sir Creek border dispute stems from the demarcation "from the mouth of Sir Creek to the top of Sir Creek, and from the top of Sir Creek eastward to a point on the line designated on the Western Terminus". From this point onward, the boundary is unambiguously fixed as defined by the Tribunal Award of 1968.
Junagadh and Manavadar In a new political map released in 2020, Pakistan claimed the former princely states of
Junagadh and
Manavadar.
Nepal Major areas of dispute between India and Nepal are
Kalapani, Limpiyadhura, Lipulekh,
Susta, Mechi, and Tanakpur. An estimated 60,000 hectares of border land is currently disputed between India and Nepal.
Kalapani territory Although claimed by Nepal,
Kalapani has been administered by the Indian army since the
1962 border war with China and Indian maps have been showing Kalapani as part of India since then. In November 2019, India issued a new political map of the country which, like earlier maps, showed Kalapani as part of India. This new map was rejected by Nepal, and mass protests against India took place across the country and outside the Indian embassy in Nepal. Protesters accused India of occupying their land. In May 2020, the Indian Defence minister,
Rajnath Singh inaugurated an 80 km road from
Dharchula to Lipulekh pass. Nepal protested against the construction of the road. The Lipulekh area is currently under India's control. On 20 May 2020, Nepal launched its own map showing Kalapani, Limpiyadhura and Lipulekh as parts of its own territory. The new map was subsequently approved by the
Nepali parliament on 18 June 2020. India opposed the move, claiming that the decision to include Limpiyadhura, Lipulekh and Kalapani is not based on evidence or historical facts. On 15 June 2020, the Indian border police,
Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB), reported that
border pillars, which served as demarcation, were missing along the India-Nepal border. SSB also reported that Nepali border police had established five new
border outposts near the disputed area. On 19 June, Nepal started deploying troops near the disputed areas. The troops had established camps and they were working on building a
helipad in the area. In the same month Nepali Army Chief, General
Purna Chandra Thapa, after visiting the Kalapani border area, stated that the
Nepali Army will start building army barracks and border outposts near the Kalapani area. On 21 June, Indian residents in border villages of Dharchula and Jhoolaghat in
Pithoragarh district claimed that radio stations in Nepal were conducting a propaganda campaign against India by playing anti-India songs and biased news bulletins showing India in a bad light.
Susta territory Susta is another territory that is disputed between Nepal and India. It is currently controlled by India as a part of the
Bihar state. The 1816
Treaty of Sugauli defined
Gandaki River as the international boundary between India and Nepal. The right bank of the river was under Nepal's control while the left bank was under India's control. Susta village was initially on the right bank when the treaty was signed and it was a part of Nepal. However, over the years, the Gandaki River changed its course and Susta moved to the left bank and is now under India's control. The
Government of Nepal has repeatedly stated that Susta belongs to Nepal and that the Indian government should return the area. == Resolved disputes ==