Roman rule : 220 BCE – 19 BCE In 218 BCE, during the
Second Punic War against the Carthaginians, the first
Roman troops occupied the Iberian Peninsula, known to them as
Hispania. After 197, the territories of the peninsula most accustomed to external contact and with the most urban tradition (the Mediterranean Coast and the Guadalquivir Valley) were divided by Romans into
Hispania Ulterior and
Hispania Citerior. Local rebellions were quelled, with a 195 Roman campaign under Cato the Elder ravaging hotspots of resistance in the northeastern Ebro Valley and beyond. The threat to Roman interests posed by Celtiberians and Lusitanians in uncontrolled territories lingered on. Further wars of indigenous resistance, such as the
Celtiberian Wars and the
Lusitanian War, were fought in the 2nd century. Urban growth took place, and population progressively moved from
hillforts to the plains. An example of the interaction of
slaving and
ecocide, the aftermath of the conquest increased mining extractive processes in the southwest of the peninsula, which required a massive number of forced laborers, initially from Hispania and latter also from the
Gallic borderlands and other locations of the Mediterranean. This caused far-reaching environmental outcomes, vis-à-vis long-term global pollution records, with levels of
atmospheric pollution from mining across the Mediterranean during Classical Antiquity having no match until the
Industrial Revolution. In addition to mineral extraction, of which the region was the leading supplier in the early Roman world, with production of the likes of gold, silver, copper, lead, and
cinnabar, Hispania also produced manufactured goods, such as
sigillata pottery,
colourless glass,
linen garments. Rural products included fish and fish sauce (
garum), and dry crops such as
wheat and, more importantly,
esparto,
olive oil, and
wine. The process of
Romanization spurred on throughout the first century BC. The peninsula was also the battleground of civil wars between rulers of the Roman republic; such as the
Sertorian War, and the
conflict between Caesar and Pompey later in the century. During their 600-year occupation of the Iberian Peninsula, the Romans introduced the Latin language which developed into the languages of the Iberian peninsula today, with the exception of Basque.
Pre-modern Iberia In the early fifth century,
Germanic peoples occupied the peninsula, namely the
Suebi, the
Vandals (
Silingi and
Hasdingi) and their allies, the
Alans. Only the kingdom of the Suebi (
Quadi and
Marcomanni) would endure after the arrival of another wave of Germanic invaders, the
Visigoths, who occupied all of the Iberian Peninsula and expelled or partially integrated the Vandals and the Alans. The Visigoths eventually occupied the Suebi kingdom and its capital city, Bracara (modern day
Braga), in 584–585. They would also occupy the
province of the
Byzantine Empire (552–624) of
Spania in the south of the peninsula. However,
Balearic Islands remained in Byzantine hands until Umayyad conquest, which began in 703 CE and was completed in 902 CE. In 711, a Muslim army conquered the
Visigothic Kingdom in Hispania. Under
Tariq ibn Ziyad, the Islamic army landed at Gibraltar and, in an eight-year campaign, occupied all except the northern kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula in the
Umayyad conquest of Hispania.
Al-Andalus (, tr.
al-ʾAndalūs, possibly "Land of the Vandals"), is the Arabic name given to Muslim Iberia. The Muslim conquerors were
Arabs and
Berbers; following the conquest, conversion and arabization of the Hispano-Roman population took place, (
muwalladum or
Muladí). After a long process, spurred on in the 9th and 10th centuries, the majority of the population in Al-Andalus eventually converted to Islam. The Muslims were referred to by the generic name
Moors. The Muslim population was divided per ethnicity (Arabs, Berbers, Muladí), and the supremacy of Arabs over the rest of group was a recurrent causal for strife, rivalry and hatred, particularly between Arabs and Berbers. Arab elites could be further divided in the Yemenites (first wave) and the Syrians (second wave). Christians and Jews were allowed to live as part of a stratified society under the
dhimmah system, although Jews became very important in certain fields. Some Christians migrated to the Northern Christian kingdoms, while those who stayed in Al-Andalus progressively arabised and became known as ''musta'arab
(mozarabs). The slave population comprised the Ṣaqāliba'' (literally meaning "slavs", although they were slaves of generic European origin) as well as
Sudanese slaves. 1000 The Umayyad rulers faced a major
Berber Revolt in the early 740s; the uprising originally broke out in North Africa (Tangier) and later spread across the peninsula. Following the
Abbasid takeover from the Umayyads and the shift of the economic centre of the Islamic Caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad, the western province of al-Andalus was marginalised and ultimately became politically autonomous as independent emirate in 756, ruled by one of the last surviving Umayyad royals,
Abd al-Rahman I. Al-Andalus became a center of culture and learning, especially during the
Caliphate of Córdoba. The Caliphate reached the height of its power under the rule of
Abd-ar-Rahman III and his successor
al-Hakam II, becoming then, in the view of
Jaime Vicens Vives, "the most powerful state in Europe". Abd-ar-Rahman III also managed to expand the clout of Al-Andalus across the Strait of Gibraltar, waging war, as well as his successor, against the
Fatimid Empire. Between the 8th and 12th centuries, Al-Andalus enjoyed a notable urban vitality, both in terms of the growth of the preexisting cities as well as in terms of founding of new ones:
Córdoba reached a population of 100,000 by the 10th century,
Toledo 30,000 by the 11th century and
Seville 80,000 by the 12th century. During the Middle Ages, the North of the peninsula housed many small Christian polities including the
Kingdom of Castile, the
Kingdom of Aragon, the
Kingdom of Navarre, the
Kingdom of León or the
Kingdom of Portugal, as well as a number of counties that spawned from the Carolingian
Marca Hispanica. Christian and Muslim polities fought and allied among themselves in variable alliances. The Christian kingdoms progressively expanded south taking over Muslim territory in what is historiographically known as the "
Reconquista" (the latter concept has been however noted as product of the claim to a pre-existing Spanish Catholic nation and it would not necessarily convey adequately "the complexity of centuries of warring and other more peaceable interactions between Muslim and Christian kingdoms in medieval Iberia between 711 and 1492"). ''). The Caliphate of Córdoba was subsumed in a period of upheaval and civil war (the
Fitna of al-Andalus) and collapsed in the early 11th century, spawning a series of ephemeral statelets, the
taifas. Until the mid 11th century, most of the territorial expansion southwards of the Kingdom of Asturias/León was carried out through a policy of agricultural colonization rather than through military operations; then, profiting from the feebleness of the taifa principalities,
Ferdinand I of León seized Lamego and Viseu (1057–1058) and Coimbra (1064) away from the
Taifa of Badajoz (at times at war with the
Taifa of Seville); Meanwhile, in the same year Coimbra was conquered, in the Northeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula, the Kingdom of Aragon
took Barbastro from the Hudid
Taifa of Lérida as part of an international expedition sanctioned by Pope Alexander II. Most critically,
Alfonso VI of León-Castile conquered Toledo and its
wider taifa in 1085, in what it was seen as a critical event at the time, entailing also a huge territorial expansion, advancing from the
Sistema Central to
La Mancha. In 1086, following the siege of Zaragoza by Alfonso VI of León-Castile, the
Almoravids, religious zealots originally from the deserts of the Maghreb, landed in the Iberian Peninsula, and, having inflicted a serious defeat to Alfonso VI at the
battle of Zalaca, began to seize control of the remaining taifas. The Almoravids in the Iberian peninsula progressively relaxed strict observance of their faith, and treated both Jews and Mozarabs harshly, facing uprisings across the peninsula, initially in the Western part. The
Almohads, another North-African Muslim sect of Masmuda Berber origin who had previously undermined the Almoravid rule south of the Strait of Gibraltar, first entered the peninsula in 1146. Somewhat straying from the trend taking place in other locations of the Latin West since the 10th century, the period comprising the 11th and 13th centuries was not one of weakening monarchical power in the Christian kingdoms. The relatively novel concept of "frontier" (Sp:
frontera), already reported in Aragon by the second half of the 11th century become widespread in the Christian Iberian kingdoms by the beginning of the 13th century, in relation to the more or less conflictual border with Muslim lands. By the beginning of the 13th century, a power reorientation took place in the Iberian Peninsula (parallel to the Christian expansion in Southern Iberia and the increasing commercial impetus of Christian powers across the Mediterranean) and to a large extent, trade-wise, the Iberian Peninsula reorientated towards the North away from the Muslim World. During the Middle Ages, the monarchs of Castile and León, from
Alfonso V and
Alfonso VI (crowned
Hispaniae Imperator) to
Alfonso X and
Alfonso XI tended to embrace an imperial ideal based on a dual Christian and Jewish ideology. Despite the hegemonic ambitions of its rulers and the consolidation of the union of Castile and León after 1230, it should be pointed that, except for a brief period in the 1330s and 1340s, Castile tended to be nonetheless "essentially unstable" from a political standpoint until the late 15th century. Merchants from Genoa and Pisa were conducting an intense trading activity in Catalonia already by the 12th century, and later in Portugal. Since the 13th century, the
Crown of Aragon expanded overseas; led by
Catalans, it attained an overseas empire in the Western Mediterranean, with a presence in Mediterranean islands such as the
Balearics,
Sicily and
Sardinia, and even conquering Naples in the mid-15th century. Genoese merchants invested heavily in the Iberian commercial enterprise with Lisbon becoming, according to
Virgínia Rau, the "great centre of Genoese trade" in the early 14th century. The Portuguese would later detach their trade to some extent from
Genoese influence. The
Nasrid Kingdom of Granada, neighbouring the
Strait of Gibraltar and founded upon a
vassalage relationship with the Crown of Castile, also insinuated itself into the European mercantile network, with its ports fostering intense trading relations with the Genoese as well, but also with the Catalans, and to a lesser extent, with the Venetians, the Florentines, and the Portuguese. Between 1275 and 1340, Granada became involved in the "crisis of the Strait", and was caught in a complex geopolitical struggle ("a kaleidoscope of alliances") with multiple powers vying for dominance of the Western Mediterranean, complicated by the unstable relations of Muslim Granada with the
Marinid Sultanate. The conflict reached a climax in the 1340
Battle of Río Salado, when, this time in alliance with Granada, the Marinid Sultan (and Caliph pretender)
Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Othman made the last Marinid attempt to set up a power base in the Iberian Peninsula. The lasting consequences of the resounding Muslim defeat to an alliance of Castile and Portugal with naval support from Aragon and Genoa ensured Christian supremacy over the Iberian Peninsula and the preeminence of Christian fleets in the Western Mediterranean. (ca. 1450) The
1348–1350 bubonic plague devastated large parts of the Iberian Peninsula, leading to a sudden economic cessation. Many settlements in northern Castile and Catalonia were left forsaken. The plague marked the start of the hostility and downright violence towards religious minorities (particularly the Jews) as an additional consequence in the Iberian realms. The 14th century was a period of great upheaval in the Iberian realms. After the death of
Peter the Cruel of Castile (reigned 1350–69), the
House of Trastámara succeeded to the throne in the person of Peter's half brother,
Henry II (reigned 1369–79). In the kingdom of Aragón, following the death without heirs of
John I (reigned 1387–96) and
Martin I (reigned 1396–1410), a prince of the House of Trastámara,
Ferdinand I (reigned 1412–16), succeeded to the Aragonese throne. The
Hundred Years' War also spilled over into the Iberian peninsula, with Castile particularly taking a role in the conflict by providing key naval support to France that helped lead to that nation's eventual victory. After the accession of
Henry III to the throne of Castile, the populace, exasperated by the preponderance of Jewish influence, perpetrated a massacre of Jews at Toledo. In 1391, mobs went from town to town throughout Castile and Aragon, killing an estimated 50,000 Jews, or even as many as 100,000, according to
Jane Gerber. Women and children were sold as slaves to Muslims, and many synagogues were converted into churches. According to
Hasdai Crescas, about 70 Jewish communities were destroyed. During the 15th century, Portugal, which had ended its southwards territorial expansion across the Iberian Peninsula in 1249 with the conquest of the Algarve, initiated an overseas expansion in parallel to the rise of the
House of Aviz,
conquering Ceuta (1415) arriving at
Porto Santo (1418),
Madeira and the
Azores, as well as establishing additional outposts along the North-African Atlantic coast. In addition, already in the Early Modern Period, between the completion of the Granada War in 1492 and the death of Ferdinand of Aragon in 1516, the
Hispanic Monarchy would make strides in the imperial expansion along the Mediterranean coast of the Maghreb. During the Late Middle Ages, the
Jews acquired considerable power and influence in Castile and Aragon. Throughout the late Middle Ages, the Crown of Aragon took part in the mediterranean slave trade, with
Barcelona (already in the 14th century),
Valencia (particularly in the 15th century) and, to a lesser extent,
Palma de Mallorca (since the 13th century), becoming dynamic centres in this regard, involving chiefly eastern and Muslim peoples. Castile engaged later in this economic activity, rather by adhering to the incipient atlantic slave trade involving sub-saharan people thrusted by Portugal (Lisbon being the largest slave centre in Western Europe) since the mid 15th century, with Seville becoming another key hub for the slave trade. Following the advance in the conquest of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada, the seizure of
Málaga entailed the addition of another notable slave centre for the Crown of Castile. By the end of the 15th century (1490) the Iberian kingdoms (including here the Balearic Islands) had an estimated population of 6.525 million (Crown of Castile, 4.3 million; Portugal, 1.0 million; Principality of Catalonia, 0.3 million; Kingdom of Valencia, 0.255 million; Kingdom of Granada, 0.25 million; Kingdom of Aragon, 0.25 million; Kingdom of Navarre, 0.12 million and the Kingdom of Mallorca, 0.05 million). For three decades in the 15th century, the
Hermandad de las Marismas, the trading association formed by the ports of Castile along the Cantabrian coast, resembling in some ways the
Hanseatic League, fought against the latter, an ally of England, a rival of Castile in political and economic terms. Castile sought to claim the
Gulf of Biscay as its own. In 1419, the powerful Castilian navy
thoroughly defeated a Hanseatic fleet in La Rochelle. In the late 15th century, the imperial ambition of the Iberian powers was pushed to new heights by the
Catholic Monarchs in Castile and Aragon, and by
Manuel I in Portugal. The last Muslim stronghold,
Granada, was conquered by a combined Castilian and Aragonese force in 1492. As many as 100,000 Moors died or were enslaved in the military campaign, while 200,000 fled to North Africa. Muslims and Jews throughout the period were variously tolerated or shown intolerance in different Christian kingdoms. After the
fall of Granada, all Muslims and Jews were ordered to convert to Christianity or face expulsion—as many as 200,000 Jews were
expelled from Spain. Approximately 3,000,000 Muslims fled or were driven out of Spain between 1492 and 1610. Historian Henry Kamen estimates that some 25,000 Jews died en route from Spain. The Jews were also
expelled from Sicily and Sardinia, which were under Aragonese rule, and an estimated 37,000 to 100,000 Jews left. In 1497, King
Manuel I of Portugal forced all Jews in his kingdom to convert or leave. That same year he
expelled all Muslims that were not slaves, and in 1502 the
Catholic Monarchs followed suit, imposing the choice of
conversion to Christianity or exile and loss of property. Many Jews and Muslims fled to
North Africa and the
Ottoman Empire, while others publicly converted to Christianity and became known respectively as
Marranos and
Moriscos (after the old term
Moors). However, many of these continued to practice their religion in secret. The Moriscos revolted several times and were ultimately
forcibly expelled from Spain in the early 17th century. From 1609 to 1614, over 300,000 Moriscos were sent on ships to North Africa and other locations, and, of this figure, around 50,000 died resisting the expulsion, and 60,000 died on the journey. A series of case studies by the
Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs at
Harvard University demonstrated that the change of relative supremacy from Portugal to the
Hispanic Monarchy in the late 15th century was one of the few cases of avoidance of the
Thucydides Trap.
Modern Iberia Challenging the conventions about the advent of modernity,
Immanuel Wallerstein pushed back the origins of the capitalist modernity to the Iberian expansion of the 15th century. During the 16th century Spain created a vast empire in the Americas, with a state monopoly in
Seville becoming the center of the ensuing transatlantic trade, based on
bullion. Iberian imperialism, starting by the Portuguese establishment of routes to Asia and the posterior transatlantic trade with the New World by Spaniards and Portuguese (along Dutch, English and French), precipitated the economic decline of the
Italian Peninsula. The 16th century was one of population growth with increased pressure over resources; in the case of the Iberian Peninsula a part of the population moved to the Americas meanwhile Jews and Moriscos were banished, relocating to other places in the Mediterranean Basin. Most of the Moriscos remained in Spain after the
Morisco revolt in Las Alpujarras during the mid-16th century, but roughly 300,000 of them
were expelled from the country in 1609–1614, and emigrated
en masse to North Africa. In 1580, after the political crisis that followed the 1578 death of King
Sebastian, Portugal became a dynastic composite entity of the Hapsburg Monarchy; thus, the whole peninsula was united politically during the period known as the
Iberian Union (1580–1640). During the reign of
Philip II of Spain (I of Portugal), the Councils of Portugal, Italy, Flanders and Burgundy were added to the group of counselling institutions of the Hispanic Monarchy, to which the Councils of Castile, Aragon, Indies, Chamber of Castile, Inquisition, Orders, and Crusade already belonged, defining the organization of the Royal court that underpinned the
Polysynodial System through which the empire operated. During the Iberian union, the "first great wave" of the
transatlantic slave trade happened, according to
Enriqueta Vila Villar, as new markets opened because of the unification gave thrust to the slave trade. By 1600, the percentage of urban population for Spain was roughly 11.4%, while for Portugal the urban population was estimated as 14.1%, which were both above the 7.6% European average of the time (edged only by the Low Countries and the Italian Peninsula). Some striking differences appeared among the different Iberian realms. Castile, extending across a 60% of the territory of the peninsula and having 80% of the population was a rather urbanised country, yet with a widespread distribution of cities. Meanwhile, the urban population in the
Crown of Aragon was highly concentrated in a handful of cities:
Zaragoza (
Kingdom of Aragon),
Barcelona (
Principality of Catalonia), and, to a lesser extent in the
Kingdom of Valencia, in
Valencia,
Alicante and
Orihuela. The case of Portugal presented an hypertrophied capital,
Lisbon (which greatly increased its population during the 16th century, from 56,000 to 60,000 inhabitants by 1527, to roughly 120,000 by the third quarter of the century) with its demographic dynamism stimulated by the Asian trade, followed at great distance by
Porto and
Évora (both roughly accounting for 12,500 inhabitants). Throughout most of the 16th century, both Lisbon and
Seville were among Western Europe's largest and most dynamic cities. 's
auto-da-fé held in the
Plaza Mayor, Madrid in 1680 was the decisive battle in the
War of the Spanish Succession The 17th century has been largely considered as a very negative period for the Iberian economies, seen as a time of recession, crisis or even decline, the urban dynamism chiefly moving to Northern Europe. A dismantling of the inner city network in the Castilian plateau took place during this period (with a parallel accumulation of economic activity in the capital,
Madrid), with only
New Castile resisting recession in the interior. Regarding the Atlantic façade of Castile, aside from the severing of trade with Northern Europe, inter-regional trade with other regions in the Iberian Peninsula also suffered to some extent. In Aragon, suffering from similar problems than Castile, the expelling of the Moriscos in 1609 in the Kingdom of Valencia aggravated the recession. Silk turned from a domestic industry into a raw commodity to be exported. However, the crisis was uneven (affecting longer the centre of the peninsula), as both Portugal and the Mediterranean coastline recovered in the later part of the century by fuelling a sustained growth. The aftermath of the intermittent
1640–1668 Portuguese Restoration War brought the
House of Braganza as the new ruling dynasty in the Portuguese territories across the world (bar
Ceuta), putting an end to the Iberian Union. Despite both Portugal and Spain starting their path towards modernization with the liberal revolutions of the first half of the 19th century, this process was, concerning structural changes in the geographical distribution of the population, relatively tame compared to what took place after World War II in the Iberian Peninsula, when strong urban development ran in parallel to substantial
rural flight patterns. ==Geography and geology==