Donghu Their earliest origins from the
Donghu are reflected in their account of the unique wedding ceremony attributed to Madam Lushi, who organized an ambush through an elaborate banquet combined with liquor and singing in order to subdue a bully named "Wang Mang". In historical terms, the "Wang Mang" people were recorded more than four thousand years ago as physically robust and active on the west of the present Liaoning, whose culture was associated with the Hongshan Culture. In archaeological terms, the Hongshan Culture gradually gave rise to the Lower Xiajiadian Culture and represented the transition toward the bronze technology. It eventually evolved into the Upper Xiajidian Culture, which was associated with the
Donghu and characterized by the practice of agriculture and animal husbandry supplemented by handicrafts and bronze art. The Donghu was a federation formed from the Donghu,
Wuhuan, and
Xianbei. Among the northern ethnic groups, the Donghu was the earliest to evolve into a state of civilization and first developed
bronze technology. Through the usage of bronze weaponry and armored cavalry in warfare, they maintained extensive dominance over the
Xiongnu on their west. In the end of the third century B.C., the Xiongnu
Maodun attacked to destroy the Donghu by surprise and caused disintegration in the federation. The Wuhuan moved to Mt. Wuhuan and engaged in continuous warfare with the Xiongnu on the west and China on the south. The Donghu spoke Mongolic language and was formed by the federation of the Donghu, Wuhuan, and Xianbei.
Xianbei As the Wuhuan and Xiongnu came to be worn out from the lengthy battles, the Xianbei preserved their strengths by moving northward to Mt. Xianbei. In the first century, the Xianbei defeated the Wuhuan and northern Xiongnu, and developed into a powerful state under the leadership of their elected
Khan, Tanshihuai. In the third century, the
Eastern Han dynasty (25–220 BC) disintegrated into three kingdoms, including the
Cao Wei (220–265) in the north, the
Eastern Wu (222–280) in the south, and the
Shu Han (221–263) in the southwest. In 235, the Cao Wei assassinated the last
Khan of the Xianbei,
Kebineng, and caused disintegration in the Xianbei Kingdom. Thereafter, the Xianbei pushed their way inside the
Great Wall of China and established extensive presence in China. During the
Sixteen Kingdoms (304–439) period, the
Xianbei founded six kingdoms: the
Former Yan (281–370),
Western Yan (384–394),
Later Yan (383–407),
Southern Yan (398–410),
Western Qin (385–430) and
Southern Liang (397–414). Most of them were unified by the
Tuoba Xianbei, who established the
Northern Wei (386–535), which was the first of the
Northern dynasties (386–581) founded by the Xianbei. In 534, the Northern Wei split into an
Eastern Wei (534–550) and a
Western Wei (535–556). The former evolved into the
Northern Qi (550–577), and the latter into the
Northern Zhou (557–581), while the Southern dynasties were pushed to the south of the
Yangtze. In 581, the prime minister of Northern Zhou, Yang Jian, usurped the throne and founded the
Sui dynasty (581–618) as
Emperor Wen of Sui. His son,
Emperor Yang of Sui, annihilated the
Chen dynasty (557–589) and unified northern and southern China, thereby bringing an end to the Northern and Southern dynasties era. Over the course of this period, the Xianbei who entered into China were immersed among the Chinese and later classified into "
Han". Yet, not all branches of the Xianbei shared this fate. In the 3rd and 4th centuries, Tuyühu, a branch of the Murong
Xianbei, undertook a westward migration that allowed them and those who followed them to develop in a different path.
Westward migration The separation of Tuyühu from the Murong
Xianbei occurred during the
Western Jin dynasty (265–316), which succeeded the
Cao Wei (220–265) in northern China. Legends accounted the separation to be due to a fight between his horses and those of his younger brother,
Murong Wei. The actual cause was intense struggle over the Khanate position and disagreement over their future directions. The fraction that supported Murong Wei into the
Khanate position aimed at ruling over China, whereas Tuyühu intended to preserve the Xianbei culture and lifestyles. The disagreement resulted in Tuyühu to proclaim as the Khan, or
Kehan, and undertook the long westward journey under the title of the Prince of Jin, or Jin Wang, followed by other Xianbei and
Wuhuan groups. While passing through western
Liaoning and Mt. Bai, more Xianbei groups joined them from the
Duan,
Yuwen, and
Bai sections. At the
Hetao Plains near
Ordos in
Inner Mongolia, Tuyühu Khan led them to reside by Mt. Yin for over thirty years, as the
Tuoba Xianbei and Northern Xianbei joined them through political and marriage alliances. After settling down in the northwest, they established the powerful Tuyühu Empire named to his honor as the first Khan who led them there, by subjugating the native peoples who were summarily referred to as the "
Qiang" and included more than 100 different and loosely coordinated tribes that did not submit to each other or any authorities. After Tuyühu Khan departed from the northeast, Murong Wei composed an "Older Brother’s Song," or "the Song of A Gan:" "A Gan" is Chinese transcription of "a ga" for "older brother" in the Xianbei language. The song lamented his sadness and longing for
Tuyühu. Legends accounted that Murong Wei often sang it until he died and the song got spread into central and northwest China. The Murong Xianbei whom he had led successively founded the
Former Yan (281–370),
Western Yan (384–394),
Later Yan (383–407), and
Southern Yan (398–410). Their territories encompassed, at their height, the present
Liaoning,
Inner Mongolia,
Shandong,
Shanxi,
Hebei, and
Henan, and their capitals included
Beijing and other cities. Through these establishments, they were immersed among the
Chinese, whereas the Xianbei who followed Tuyühu Khan preserved their language and culture.
Mt. Xianbei In the extensive migrations that the Xianbei undertook in the northeast, northern, and northwest China, the name of Mt. Xianbei was found along their trajectories. The earliest recorded Mt. Xianbei was in the southern portions of
Daxinganling, located in northeast Inner Mongolia, which represented the originating place of the Xianbei. Two Mt. Xianbei were recorded subsequently in western
Liaoning: one in the present
Jinzhou City and one near Yi County. Another Mt. Xianbei was recorded in the northern portions of Daxinganling, located near Alihe Town of
Oroqin Autonomous Banner in Hulunbeiermeng in the northeastern portion of Inner Mongolia that borders eastern
Russia. The Gaxian Cave, currently
Khabarovsk and
Amur regions in the
Russian Far East, which had stone inscriptions of the
Northern Wei emperor dated 443, was recognized to be the sacred ancestral shrine of the Xianbei. In the northwest, the
Qilian Mountains that run along
Gansu and
Qinghai provinces were referred to as the Greater Mt. Xianbei. In
Sanchuan/
Guanting of
Minhe County in
Qinghai, which holds the most densely populated Monguor settlement, Mt. Xianbei stands in the west, upon which sits the ancestral shrine of the Xianbei Khans.
Tuyuhun Empire After Tuyühu Khan died in
Linxia, also known as Huozhou,
Gansu in 317, his sixty sons inherited to further develop the empire, by annihilating the
Western Qin (385–430), which had annexed
Southern Liang (396–414) earlier, and Haolian
Xia (407–431) kingdoms, from which the Qinghai Xianbei, Tufa Xianbei, Qifu Xianbei and Haolian Xianbei joined them. These Xianbei groups formed the core of the
Tuyuhun Empire and numbered about 3.3 million at their peak. They carried out extensive military expeditions westward, reaching as far as
Hetian in
Xinjiang and the borders of
India and
Afghanistan, and established a vast empire that encompassed
Qinghai, Gansu,
Ningxia, northern
Sichuan, eastern
Shaanxi, southern Xinjiang, and most of
Tibet, stretching 1,500 kilometers from the east to the west and 1,000 kilometers from the north to the south. They unified northwest China for the first time in history, developed the southern route of the
Silk Road, and promoted cultural exchanges between the eastern and western territories, dominating the northwest for more than three and half centuries until the empire was destroyed by the
Tibetans who rose up in 670.
Tibet The
Xianbei asserted cultural imprint in the region. The English reference for "
Tibet" may have come from the Xianbei language for
Tibetans "Tiebie," in contrast to the self-reference of the Tibetans as "Bo". The name "Tiebie" may have come from the
Tuoba Xianbei who founded the
Southern Liang (397–414). The Tuoba established the
Northern Wei (386–535) and objected to the Tuoba of Southern Liang using the Chinese characters for "Tufa." They shared Tuoba descent. After the Southern Liang were annexed by the
Western Qin, and then annexed by the Tuyühu Empire, the majority of Tufa Xianbei joined the Tuyühu Empire. Some submitted under the Northern Wei in China, while a small fraction went into Tibet and gave rise to the name "Tiebie". In the ancient Chinese records, the reference of Tibet included "Tubo" and "Tufan," which reflected the Chinese transcriptions of "Tuoba" and "Tufa." It is likely that "Tuoba" recorded in the Chinese language may have been pronounced as "Tiebie" originally in the Xianbei language. Among the Monguor settlement in
Minhe,
Qinghai today, the La and Bao Family Villages were accounted to have descended from "Tiebie", indicating that they have derived their origins from the Tufa (Tuoba) Xianbei of the Southern Liang. The Tibetans refer to the Monguor as "Huo’er," which came from the final word of the name of Tuyühu
Khan. The Monguor refer to Tuyühu Khan as "Huozhou didi;" in which "Huozhou" was applied to
Linxia,
Gansu where Tuyühu Khan died, and "didi" was traditionally a reverence term for a deceased ancestor with deity status. The earliest record of the Monguor in the Western publications was made by the
French missionaries, Huc and Gabet, who traveled through northwest China in 1844–46. They used "Dschiahour" to represent the Monguor, based on Tibetan reference, in which "Dschia" was likely abbreviated from the first part of "Chaghan" (or "White") from the self-reference of the Monguor as "Chaghan Monguor" (or "White Mongols"), and "Hour" was a variant record to the Tibetan reference of the Monguor as "Huo’er" used by the Tibetans today.
Rise of Tibet In the beginning of the
Tang dynasty, the Tuyühu Empire came to a gradual decline and was increasingly caught in the conflict between the Tang and the
Tibetan Empire. Because the Tuyühu Empire controlled the crucial trade routes between the east and the west, the Empire became the immediate target of invasion by the Tang. Meanwhile, the Tibetan Empire developed rapidly under the leadership of
Songtsen Gampo, who united the
Tibetans and expanded northward, directly threatening the Tuyühu Empire. The exile Tuyühu
Khan, Dayan, submitted under Tibet, which resorted to an excuse that Tuyühu objected its marriage with the Tang and sent 200,000 troops to attack. The Tuyühu troops retreated to
Qinghai, whereas Tibet went eastward to attack the
Tangut and reached into southern
Gansu. The Tang government was shocked and sent (five ???) troops to fight. Although Tibet withdrew in response, the Tuyühu Empire lost much of its territory in southern Gansu. Meanwhile, the Tuyühu government was split between the pro-Tang and pro-Tibet factions, with the latter becoming increasingly stronger and corroborating with Tibet to bring about an invasion. The Tang sent its famous general,
Xue Rengui, to lead 100,000 troops to fight Tibet in Dafeichuan (present
Gonghe County in Qinghai). They were annihilated in an ambush by 200,000 troops of Dayan and Tibet, which became the biggest debacle in the Tang history, and formally brought the Tuyühu Empire to an end. After its fall in 670, the Tuyühu Empire split into an Eastern and Western Kingdom. The Eastern Kingdom existed on the eastern side of the
Qilian Mountains and increasingly migrated eastward into central China, whereas the Western Kingdom existed under the leadership of the former exile
Khan, Dayan, in Tibet. As the
An Lushan Rebellion shook up the Tang court and caused its emperor to flee, Tibet overtook the entire territory of Tuyühu until internal turmoil developed within the Tibetan government and massive revolts brought an end to its rule. Through this period, the
Xianbei underwent massive diasporas over a vast territory that stretched from the northwest into central and eastern parts of China, with the greatest concentrations found by Mt. Yin near Ordos. In 946, the Shatuo Turk,
Liu Zhiyuan, conspired to murder the highest Xianbei leader, Bai Chengfu, who was reportedly so wealthy that "his horses had silver mangers". With that stolen wealth, which included an abundance of property and thousands of fine horses, Liu established the
Later Han (947–950), the shortest dynasty in Chinese history, lasting only four years. The incident took away the central leadership and removed any possibility for the Xianbei to restore the Tuyühu Empire.
Western Xia Empire The
Western Xia Empire inherited the political and social structures of the
Tang and further developed an outstanding civilization characterized as "shining and sparkling". It became the new kingdom for the descendants of the Tuyühu
Xianbei who had lost their country. The Western Xia made significant achievements in literature, art, music, architecture, and chemistry. Through effective military organizations that integrated cavalry, chariots, archery, shields, artillery (cannons carried on the back of camels), and amphibious troops for combats on the land and water, the Xia army maintained a powerful stance in opposition to the
Song,
Liao (916–1125), and
Jin (1115–1234) empires to its east, the last of which was founded by the
Jurchens, who were the predecessors of the
Manchus who would found the
Qing dynasty (1644–1912). The Xia territory encompassed the present
Ningxia,
Gansu, eastern
Qinghai, northern
Shaanxi, northeastern
Xinjiang, southwest
Inner Mongolia, and southernmost
Outer Mongolia, spanning about 800,000 square kilometers. In the beginning of the thirteenth century,
Genghis Khan unified the northern grasslands of
Mongolia and led the
Mongol troops to carry out six rounds of attacks against
Western Xia over a period of twenty-two years. As Western Xia resisted vehemently, more and more of its people crossed the
Qilian Mountains to join the earlier establishments in Qinghai and Gansu in order to avoid the Mongol assaults, which gave rise to the current settlements of the Monguor. During the last round of attacks, Genghis Khan died in Western Xia. The official Mongol historical account attributed his death to an illness, whereas legends told that he died from a wound inflicted in the battles. After the Xia capital was overrun in 1227, the Mongols destroyed much of hu its architecture and written records, killing the last emperor and massacring tens of thousands of civilians. The Xia troops were later incorporated into the Mongol army in their subsequent military conquests in central and southern China. Due to the fierce resistance of the Xia against the Mongol attacks, especially in causing the death of Genghis, they were initially suppressed in the
Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). Toward the middle and later stages of the Yuan, the Xia received equivalent treatment to the ruling Mongols and attained the highest offices in the Central Court. After the Yuan fell, the Xia who followed the Mongols into the northern grassland were immersed among and later classified into the "Mongols."
Tangut-Xixia The English reference of "
Tangut-
Xixia" was derived from the combination of the
Mongolian reference of "Tangut" and the Chinese reference as "Xixia" or "
Western Xia." The Chinese reference was derived from the location of the empire on the western side of the
Yellow River, in contrast to the
Liao (916–1125) and
Jin on its east. The Mongolian usage of "Tangut" most likely referred to the "
Donghu people;" "-t" in Mongolian language means "people". Whereas "Donghu" was a Chinese transcription, its Mongolian reference was "Tünghu". By the time that the Mongols emerged in the thirteenth century, the only "Donghu people" who existed were the "Tu" in Western Xia. That the Mongols referred to Western Xia as "Tangut" to represent the founding ethnic group, the Tuyühu Xianbei, is consistent with the theories of the Mongol origins postulated by the Outer Mongolian scholars, who have held that the Mongols had descended from the
Xiongnu, more specifically the eastern Xiongnu who spoke
proto-Mongolic language, as opposed to the western Xiongnu who spoke proto-
Turkish language. In contrast, the Chinese scholars have characterized that the Mongols had descended from the Xianbei. The Mongols were recorded as "Mengwu
Shiwei" in the
Northern dynasties: "Mengwu" was a variant Chinese transcription of "Menggu" designated to the Mongols, and "Shiwei" was a variant transcription of the Xianbei, as "Xianbei" was also recorded as "Sian-pie," "Serbi," "Sirbi" and "Sirvi". This equated the Mongols to be "Mongol Xianbei," which was likely associated with the submission of the Xiongnu under Xianbei. In 87 A.D., the Xianbei defeated the northern Xiongnu and killed their king,
Chanyu Youliu, causing its thorough disintegration. Thereafter, the Xiongnu submitted under and self-proclaimed to be Xianbei. This resulted in a mix of the Xiongnu into Xianbei and made it difficult to differentiate the two groups in subsequent historical records. That the Mongolian term "Tangut" represented "the Donghu people," the Xianbei and their descendants who had founded the Tuyühu and
Western Xia empires, would validate the theories of the Outer Mongolian scholars that the Mongols had descended from the Xiongnu. The fact that there were
Wuhuan groups, who were part of the Donghu federation and followed Tuyühu
Khan in the westward migration, would make the interpretation that "Tangut" represented "the Donghu people" stronger, not only from reflecting that the Wuhuan joined the Xianbei in the Tuyühu and Western Xia empires, but also contrasting that the Mongols had descended from the Xiongnu. If the Mongols had descended from the Xianbei, as the Chinese scholars characterized, the Mongols would have shared the same ethnic origins with the Xianbei of the Tuyühu Empire and not have called them as "the Donghu people" in reference of Western Xia. While the intimate associations between the two groups were manifested in the cross references of the Mongols as "Mengwu
Shiwei" (or "Mongol Xianbei") from the first century and the Monguor as "Chaghan (or White) Monguor" in the thirteenth century, ethnically and culturally they remained different. As much as the prefix "Mengwu" (or "Mongol") in front of "Shiwei" (or "Xianbei") marked the difference between the Mongols and the Xianbei, the prefix "Chaghan" in front of "Monguor" indicated that the Monguor and their Xianbei predecessors were not the same as the Mongols. Culturally, the Mongols have retained a
nomadic lifestyle, whereas the social organizations and religious lives of the Monguor are of far greater complexities.
Mongols, Khitans, and Jurchens When the
Mongols emerged as a mighty power in the thirteenth century, a reverse occurred in the ethnonyms of the
Xianbei and Mongols. This was represented in the reference of the Xianbei descendants as "Chaghan Monguor" (or "White Mongols"), which gave rise to the ethnonym of "Monguor" known in the Western publications. The term "White Mongols," or "Bai Menggu," first occurred when
Genghis Khan united the Mongols to rise up in
Mongolia in 1206. The Xianbei descendants who resided near Mt. Yin self-proclaimed to be "White Mongols" and joined them. They received the same treatment as the Mongols and partook in their westward conquests in
Central Asia and
Europe. As waves and waves of the Xianbei went south and westward to establish different empires, those who remained in the northeast emerged as major powers later to rule over China. While the "Mongol Xianbei" (or "Mengwu
Shiwei") emerged from the northern
Manchuria and northeastern Mongolia, the
Khitans, or "Qidan" in Chinese, derived their ancestral origins from the
Yuwen Xianbei in southern Mongolia, who had earlier founded the
Western Wei (535–556) and
Northern Zhou (557–581) of the
Northern dynasties. When the Khitans established the
Liao dynasty (916–1125) in
China proper, they were referred to as "Qara (or Black) Khitāy". Their rule gave rise to the reference of China known as "Hătāi" and "
Cathay" in the
Persian and
European countries. The reference of "Qara" (or "Black") as a prefix in the name of the Khitans and "Khara" (or "Black") in that of the Mongols may indicate that both groups had substantial input from the
Xiongnu, who by self proclaiming to be "Xianbei" earlier made it hard in distinguish in the Chinese records. After the Xianbei vacated from the northeast, the
Jurchens, known as "
Nüzhen" in Chinese, moved southward into Manchuria from their original habitation in the
Tungus Plains in eastern
Russia located on the north of Manchuria. They occupied the former areas of the Xianbei and renamed the Xianbei Mountains (鮮卑山) to "
Daxinganling," which remains in use today and literally meant "White Mountains" in their Tungus language. They first established the
Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in northern China by pushing the
Liao Empire of the Khitans westward into
Xinjiang. After the Jin Empire was destroyed by the Mongols in 1234, they withdrew back to Manchuria and returned later with the rejoined forces from the Mongols to establish the last dynasty of the
Qing (1644–1912) in China under the new ethnonym of
Manchu, or "Man Zu" in Chinese.
Xia title The full national title of
Western Xia was "the Great Xia Kingdom of the White and Mighty," or "Bai Gao Da Xia Guo" (白高大夏国). The term "White" (or "Bai") was designated to the founding ethnic group, the
Xianbei descendants of the Tuyühu Empire, which is consistent with their reference of "Chaghan" (or "White"), derived from their origins from the Murong Xianbei known as the "White Section." The term "Mighty" (or "Gao") was designated to the
"Qiang" people who formed the majority of the population. The "Qiang" were the native peoples who were subjugated by the Xianbei in the northwest. They initially rebelled but later their fate became intimately associated with the Xianbei, as they actively defended the empire when the enemies attacked. In addition to the
Tibetans and authentic Han people, the "Qiang" comprised a portion of the
Miao/
Hmong who were relocated to the northwest from central China after their Three Miao Kingdom was destroyed by the legendary Chinese Emperor Yü the Great about four thousand years ago. The "Qiang" referred to Western Xia as their "Gao (or ‘Mighty’) Mi Yao" Kingdom. When "Mi Yao" is pronounced together, it is similar to "Miao." Since the autonyms of the Miao/Hmong include "Guoxiong", "Gaoxiong," and "Gouxiong," the character "Gao" (or "Mighty") in the Xia national title could have derived as a variant abbreviation. "Bai Gao" in the national title was in turn used it to refer to the
Yellow River, which had traditionally been referred to as the "Mother River" of China, known as "Mu Qin He," that has nurtured their homeland.
Current status The
Flemish Catholic missionary, Schram, who wrote about the Monguor based on residence in the current Qinghai Province in the early twentieth century, cited Comte de Lesdain, who characterized the Monguor as "the most authentic reminder of the primitive race from which the Chinese sprung." This characterization reflected that the Monguor culture under their observation has embodied "a high civilization fortified by its own history and distinctive social structure" developed by the Xianbei forefathers from their extensive rulings over China and preserved by the "Monguor"/"Tu". As early as the Tuyühu period,
Confucianism served as the core ideology to govern the country, and the Chinese
Buddhism and
Shamanism functioned as the principle religions. In Western Xia, Confucianism was further strengthened, and
Taoism was made into the national religion along with Buddhism. As the Yellow Sect of Buddhism, also known as the
Tibetan Buddhism, became prevalent in the northwest, their religious lives shifted from the Chinese toward Tibetan Buddhism. After Western Xia fell, its territory centered in Ningxia was fragmented by the successive establishments of
Shaanxi,
Gansu, and
Qinghai provinces, which increasingly weakened the political and military powers of the Monguor. Through the
Ming (1368–1644) and
Qing (1644–1912) dynasties, the Monguor continued to play important roles in the national defense, and political and religious affairs of China. Starting in the middle of the Ming dynasty, the ranches of the Monguor were taken into the state possession, and their horses became the subject of being drafted into the national army and looted by the Mongols from the north, resulting in the eventual shift of their lifestyles toward sedentary agriculture, supplemented by minimum animal husbandry, as the original Monguor groups became settled into the form of different
villages. In the last two centuries, the areas formerly occupied by the Monguor were encroached upon by increasing inland Chinese migrations. Throughout this period, the Monguor maintained a high degree of political autonomy and self governance under the local chiefdom system of
Tusi. The Monguor troops led by their Tusi defended not only their own homeland but also joined the national army to participate in wars that took place as far as in eastern
Liaoning,
Shaanxi,
Shanxi,
Yunnan,
Mongolia, and
Dunhuang, which progressively weakened their military power. Their political power came to the ultimate decline when the Tusi system was abolished in 1931, which exacerbated more Monguor to lose their language. By the founding of the
People's Republic of China in 1949, only about fifty thousand of the Monguor have maintained to speak their language, primarily in
Qinghai and
Gansu. During the Chinese classificatory campaigns carried out in the 1950s, those who could no longer speak their language were classified into "
Han", those who could not speak their language but adopted the Islamic religion were classified into "
Hui", those who followed the
Mongols into the northern grassland were classified into "Mongols", and those who spoke their language and adopted the Islamic religion were classified into "
Dongxiang", "
Bonan" and "
Yugur", the last of which represented the intermixture of the
Xianbei and Sari Uyghurs. ==Culture==