Revolutionary wave The
February Revolution in the
Russian Empire, which took place on 8-12 March 1917, ended in victory of the democratic forces. In Ukraine, which had been a theatre of the
First World War for the previous three years, as well as in Ukrainian communities in other parts of the empire, the revolutionary process took a different path than in the imperial centre, adopting a distinctively national character. Many of the revolutionary soldiers and workers who had overthrown the monarchy in
Petrograd belonged to the Ukrainian ethnicity, and some of them were members of a secret
Social Democratic organization coordinated by
Volodymyr Vynnychenko, who at the time resided in
Moscow. Following the revolution, on 13 April a Ukrainian national committee was created in Petrograd, headed by
Oleksander Lototsky, and a Ukrainian fraction was formed in the
Petrograd Soviet under the leadership of
Oleksander Shulhyn. On 17 March 1917 the
Ukrainian Central Council (Central
Rada) was established in
Kyiv on the base of the local branch of the Society of Ukrainian Progressists. It became the centre of Ukrainian political life under the leadership of professor
Mykhailo Hrushevsky, who arrived to Kyiv following his liberation from exile on 9 April. Hrushevsky's program articles in the
Nova Rada daily newspaper, which started publishing soon thereafter turned him into an undisputed leader of the Ukrainian national movement. On 13 April a major demonstration took place in the
Sofiyska Square, involving around 100,000 participants, many of whom waved
blue-and-yellow flags and sang the
Ukrainian national anthem. During the event, Hrushevsky delivered a speech, proclaiming the liberation of Ukraine from centuries-old subjugation and accepted a pledge of allegiance from the people to their country.
Declaration of autonomy The attempts of Central Rada to establish itself as the main political force in Ukraine were opposed both by a significant part of local workers and revolutionary soldiers, who viewed Ukrainian autonomism as a "stab in the back" against the Revolution, and by the Provisional Government. In March the Russian revolutionary cabinet headed by
Georgy Lvov allowed the establishment of the post of representative in Ukrainian affairs, appointed
Dmytro Doroshenko, Oleksander Lototsky and
Ivan Kraskovsky as governors in
Galicia and Bukovina, restored Ukrainians' rights in the occupied territories of
Austria-Hungary and permitted the introduction of Ukrainian language in schools and administration of Ukrainian lands. However in May the Provisional Government refused to allow Ukrainian representatives to attend planned international conferences, declined the plan for establishment of a special commissariat of Ukrainian affairs and took a negative attitude to Ukrainization of the armed forces and liberation of arrested Galician Ukrainians. A hostile position against Ukrainian autonomy demands was also taken by the Petrograd Council. On 10–15 June 1917 the 1st All-Ukrainian Peasant Congress took place in Kyiv with participation of 2,200 delegates. On 11 June an extraordinary congress of the council of Doroshenko Ukrainian Military Society in
Simferopol took a decision to create a separate Ukrainian regiment. Between 18 and 24 June, ignoring the prohibition of the
Russian Provisional Government, the 2nd Ukrainian Military Congress took place in Kyiv. The congress accepted the declaration of a detailed plan of
Ukrainization of Russian Army units, leaving Symon Petliura as the head of the Ukrainian General Military Committee, and acted to regulate the issue of
Free Cossacks. The congress showed its support to the Ukrainian Central Council. The council of
Kharkov Governorate recognized the Ukrainian Central Council as a government authority in Ukraine. On 24 June 1917, the
Central Council of Ukraine declared its autonomy as part of the
Russian Republic by its
First Universal at the All-Ukrainian Military Congress. The highest governing body of the Ukrainian People's Republic became the
General Secretariat headed by Volodymyr Vynnychenko, which was elected on 28 June.
Attempts of compromise with the Provisional Government On 11 July a delegation of the
Russian Provisional Government composed of Prime Minister
Alexander Kerensky, foreign minister
Mikhail Tereshchenko, transport minister
Nikolai Nekrasov and minister of the post
Irakli Tsereteli arrived to Kyiv. As a result of talks with Hrushevsky, Vynnychenko and Petliura, the Provisional Government recognized the Secretariat, appointing it as the representative governing body of the
Russian Provisional Government and limiting its powers to five
governorates:
Volyn,
Kiev,
Podolia,
Chernigov, and
Poltava. On 14 July the Ukrainian Central Council created the
Petty Council consisting of 40 representatives from Ukrainians and 18 from national minorities. On 16 July that organ adopted the
Second Universal of the Ukrainian Central Council, and on 29 July – the Statute of the Supreme Government of Ukraine. The Second Universal declared Ukraine's course for autonomy inside of Russia, which was to be officially approved by the future
Russian Constituent Assembly. In addition, it ordered the inclusion of at least 30% of ethnic minority representatives into the Central Council, making it a full-fledged Ukrainian parliament. The General Secretariat was reformed as well, including four members from the Russian, Polish and Jewish minorities and turning into an institution of the Provisional Government, which removed its subordination to the Central Rada. At first Vynnychenko protested against that decision and left his post as the Secretariat's leader, but eventually returned to reassemble the organ after the Central Rada issued the Second Universal. According to the 17 August
Instruktsiya (Temporary Instruction) of the Russian Provisional Government, it recognized the competency of the General Secretariat over five Governorates:
Kiev,
Volyn,
Poltava,
Chernihiv, and
Podillia. Other territories could recognize the Secretariat's rule in their territories according to decisions of their local governments. At the same time, the Provisional Government was forced to formally recognize Ukraine as an administrative unit of its own.
Breakdown of relations with Petrograd Despite the formal recognition of Ukrainian autonomy, in reality the Provisional Government failed to act upon its own Instruction, and systematically hindered the operations of Central Rada. This attitude was contributed to by the failure of Ukrainian parties in
city duma elections during the summer. Ukrainization of army units was also hindered by authorities in Petrograd, After expelling the Provisional Government's forces, Central Rada announced a wider autonomy for the Ukrainian Republic, while still maintaining ties to Russia. The territory of the republic was defined by the
Third Universal adopted on 20 November 1917 (7 November by Old Style) and included the governorates of Volyn, Kiev, Podillia, Chernihiv, Poltava,
Kharkiv,
Katerynoslav,
Kherson and
Taurida (except of
Crimea). It also stated that the people of
Voronezh,
Kholm, and
Kursk governorates were welcome to join the republic through a
referendum. Additionally, the Universal stated that in absence of a legitimate government in the Russian Republic after the October Revolution, Central Rada would function as the supreme governing body in Ukraine until order could be restored. The Rada condemned all revolutionary activities such as the October Revolution to be threatening with
civil war and expressed its hopes for a peaceful resolution of the crisis. On the day of the Universal's publication, Russian
Cadet deputy V. Krupkov and Polish representative W. Rudnicki surrendered their mandates at the Central Council. On 22 November the document was solemnly proclaimed at Kyiv's Sofiyska Square in the presence of
French,
Italian, and
Romanian diplomatic missions. The
1917 Russian Constituent Assembly election in late November demonstrated mass popular support for the Central Rada in regions under its control, with Ukrainian parties winning around 75% of total votes, compared to only 10% supporting the Bolsheviks. On 21 November the General Secretary of Military Affairs Symon Petliura appointed General
Pavlo Skoropadsky as commander of the armed forces in
Right-bank Ukraine. On 27 November the Ukrainian Central Council adopted a resolution regarding the Kholm Governorate, protesting against its annexation by Poland. On 25 December 1917 four groups of a 30-thousand strong Bolshevik army under command of
Vladimir Antonov-Ovseenko entered Ukrainian territory, and on the next day
occupied Kharkiv. From there Ovseenko's troops moved in the direction of
Poltava and
Lozova, occupying
Katerynoslav on 9 January and
Oleksandrivsk on 15 January. Poltava
fell on 20 January. Meanwhile the Bryansk group commanded by Znamensky occupied
Hlukhiv on 19 January and
Konotop on the 26th. Moving from Poltava, troops under command of
Mikhail Muravyov took
Romodan and advanced on
Bakhmach, taking the city on 27 January. In Bakhmach all three groups of Bolshevik forces united and advanced on Kyiv. Among the conflict between Bolsheviks and the Central Rada, a series of regional Soviet republics on the territory of Ukraine proclaimed their independence and allegiance to the Petrograd Sovnarkom, including the
Odesa Soviet Republic and
Donetsk-Krivoi Rog Soviet Republic. The latter was created by a direct decree of Lenin as part of the
Russian SFSR with its capital in Kharkiv, and was headed by
Fyodor Sergeyev who became the chairman of the local government as well as member of the Soviet government of Ukraine. Unlike the latter, the Odesa Republic was not recognized by any other Bolshevik government and on its own initiative entered a military conflict with
Romania for control over the
Moldavian Democratic Republic, whose territory it was contesting.
Proclamation of independence On 14–15 December the Petty Council adopted the Law on the General Court, the highest judicial institution of the Ukrainian People's Republic. International diplomatic missions transferred their offices from
Mohyliv-Podilsky to Kyiv. The government of France on 18 December announced its intention to establish diplomatic relations with Ukraine. England declared a similar intention. On 22 December the Petty Council adopted the Law on taxes and duties, according to which all taxes and duties belonged to the State Treasury of Ukraine. On the same day, the law on
National-Individual Autonomy was adopted.
Brest treaty (9 February 1918): On 29 January 1918 the
Battle of Kruty contributed to a slowdown of the Bolshevik advance on Kyiv. Simultaneously, a pro-Bolshevik
workers' uprising started in the capital, distracting a number of Ukrainian units from the front. The Central Powers' victories in Ukraine were caused by the apathy of the locals and the inferior fighting skills of Bolshevik troops compared to their Austro-Hungarian and German counterparts. On 13 April the Central Council adopted a resolution condemning the annexation of
Bessarabia by Romania. On 23 April an economic treaty was signed between Ukraine, Germany and Austria-Hungary, and on 25 April the law on the Central Economic Council of Ukraine was adopted. After the treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Ukraine became a virtual
protectorate of the
German Empire which at that time seemed more favorable than being overrun by the Soviet forces that were spreading
havoc in the country. Germany was anxious about losing the war and was trying to speed up the process of food extraction from Ukraine, so it decided to install its own administration in the person of
Generalfeldmarschall von Eichhorn who replaced the
Colonel General Alexander von Linsingen. On 6 April the commander of the Army group
Kijew issued an order in which he explained his intentions to execute the conditions of the treaty. That, of course, conflicted with the laws of the Ukrainian government, which annulled his order.
Deposition of Central Rada The arrival of German and Austrian troops to Ukraine resulted in a significant change in the country's politics. The left-wing Central Rada, which was dominated by the Socialist Revolutionary Party, was perceived by the occupying forces as unable to establish law and order, meanwhile the Central Powers' attempts to prevent stealing of grain and restore the export of goods were seen by the Ukrainian government as foreign intrusion in its internal affairs. The ruling regime was unpopular among large parts of the Ukrainian population, especially landowners and richer peasants. By the end of April 1918 Germans were increasingly acting as an occupying force. On 25 April
Generalfeldmarschall von Eichhorn ordered the introduction of military
court-martials in Ukrainian territory, and on 26-27 April German forces disarmed the Ukrainian Bluecoats division. On 28 April German soldiers entered a session of the Central Rada and performed a search of its members, arresting two government ministers. These actions were strongly condemned by the Central Rada and broader society. The Hetmanate's government supported the confiscation of previously nationalized peasant lands by wealthy estate owners, often with the help of German troops. This led to unrest, the rise of peasant
guerrilla movement, and a series of large-scale popular armed revolts. Negotiations were held to garner support from previous Rada members Petliura and Vynnychenko, but those worked to overthrow Skoropadsky. On 30 July, a Russian
Left Socialist-Revolutionary,
Boris Mikhailovich Donskoy, with help from the local
USRP succeeded in assassinating von Eichhorn, blowing him up in broadlight in downtown Kyiv. Due to the impending loss of
World War I by Germany and
Austria-Hungary, who were Skoropadsky's main sponsors, part of the hetman's ministers adopted a pro-Entente position and voiced support for the restoration of "one indivisible Russia". In order to distance himself from that proposal, Skoropadsky initiated talks with Vynnychenko, which resulted in appointment of four government members representing the Ukrainian Party of Socialist Federalists, part of the Ukrainian National Union. In his declaration from 29 October, the hetman pledged his allegiance to a sovereign Ukraine and promised to introduce a land reform and call a parliament. The new ministers started working on laws in order to realize the program. At the same time, the degradation of situation in Germany threatened with a new Bolshevik invasion, and Kyiv became a centre of concentration of Russian officers and politicians. This moved the hetman to adopt a more conciliatory position to the Entente, whose representatives viewed Ukrainian national aspirations with skepticism, but supported the unification of all anti-Communist forces. On 13 November the Soviets annulled the
Brest Peace Treaty and invalidated their recognition of the Ukrainian State's independence.
Establishment of the Directorate Among the first steps of the Directorate was restoration of the law on national-individual autonomy on 16 December. After its entry into Kyiv on 19 December, its forces conducted a military parade at Sofiyska Square. Meanwhile
Entente forces occupied the ports of
Southern Ukraine as part of the
Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War, which caused a note of protest from the new government. On 26 December the Directorate published a declaration on the principles of its socioeconomic policies and political system. On 1 January 1919 the law on the Supreme body of the
Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Unified Church was adopted. On 2 January Chief Otaman Symon Petliura ordered the exile of all "enemies of Ukraine". On 4 January the Directorate adopted the law establishing the Ukrainian monetary unit, hryvnia, and on 8 January the government approved the Land Law, based upon
socialist principles. After establishing
a new Ukrainian Soviet government in
Kursk, the Bolsheviks started a new invasion in late December. On 31 December 1918 and 3-4 January 1919 the Directorate issued several notes of protest to Soviet Russia due to its invasion of Ukraine, In late December 1918, the Bolsheviks directed their main military effort against Left-bank Ukraine. In the north, their forces tied up Ukrainian contingents in
Polissia near
Mazyr and
Luninets. Bolshevik forces were aided by rebel groups headed by
Makhno, who occupied Katerynoslav, and
Zeleny, whose forces started an insurgency to the south of Kyiv. This allowed the Bolsheviks to occupy the Left Bank and approach the Ukrainian capital. In the south, Entente forces occupied the port of
Odesa and forced Ukrainian troops to retreat to the line
Tiraspol-
Birzula-
Voznesensk-
Mykolaiv-
Kherson, transferring power in the city to Russian
Volunteer Army. Protesting against the unwillingness of the Directorate to oppose the Entente demands, parts of its forces headed by otaman
Hryhoriev deserted its ranks and joined the Bolsheviks. Following unsuccessful negotiations with the Entente, whose French representatives demanded from the Ukrainian side to create a single front with Russian anti-Bolsheviks, on 9 April the Directorate adopted a declaration on the resignation of
Ostapenko government and appointed a new Council of People's Ministers headed by
Borys Martos. On 15 April the government appointed General
Oleksandr Osetsky as the Otaman of the Army. On 29 April
Volodymyr Oskilko organized a coup attempt against the Directory in
Rivne, which further weakened Ukrainian positions in Volhynia. On 9 May Symon Petliura was elected head of the Directorate in
Radyvyliv. After fierce battles, on 12 August Ukrainian troops took
Vinnytsia, and on 14 August captured
Khmilnyk, Yaniv,
Kalynivka and
Starokostiantyniv. On 19 August Ukrainian forces established control over Berdychiv, and two days later entered Zhytomyr. In the southeast units commanded by
Oleksandr Udovychenko advanced on Birzula. On 31 August Ukrainian armies entered Kyiv and organized a military parade in the city. However, on the same day elements of the 7th Volunteer Army under command of general Bredov infiltrated the city from the Left Bank. Follwong a skirmish, the Ukrainian command headed by
Antin Kravs agreed to retreat from Kyiv in southwestern direction. This allowed parts of the
14th Bolshevik Army to rejoin its main force near Zhytomyr. The advent of cold weather caused new difficulties, bringing with itself a
typhus epidemic, which greatly damaged both the civilian population and the army personnel. The epidemic was exacerbated by the lack of medicaments caused by the continuing blockade of the Ukrainian territory. Having lost up to 70% of their fighters, Ukrainian armies were forced to retreat westwards. To save their human resources, on 6 November command of the Galician Army signed an agreement with Denikin, according to which their force would become part of the
Armed Forces of South Russia. This step was condemned by Petrushevych, who initiated a court proceeding against the signatories. However, the court acquitted Galician Army's supreme commander
Myron Tarnavsky and his chief of staff, and on 17 November the treaty was confirmed in Odesa. On 16 November Petrushevych left for
Vienna, hoping to protect the interests of Galician Ukrainians with diplomatic means. Following the liquidation of Galician Army's front, the Directorate was forced to leave Kamianets and moved nothwards together with the retreating army. On 15 November its members agreed to transfer all of the organ's functions to Petliura. By the end of November, Directorate's forces found themselves surrounded by Poles from the west, Denikin's forces from the east and south, and Bolsheviks from the north. On 4 December a joint council of government members and army command of the UPR took a decision to engage in
guerrilla war in the rear of Bolsheviks and Denikin's troops, and on 6 December a group under command of
Mykhailo Omelianovych-Pavlenko and Yuriy Tyutyunnyk moved northeast, starting the
First Winter Campaign. Petliura left for
Warsaw in order to engage in diplomatic work, leaving prime minister
Isaak Mazepa and other members of government to coordinate the army.
Alliance with Poland In October 1919 a diplomatic mission headed by
Andriy Livytskyi and involving
Stepan Vytvytskyi arrived to Poland in order to negotiate provision of supplies for Ukrainian troops. On 2 December it presented a declaration, which agreed to establish the Polish-Ukrainian border along the Zbruch river and across southwestern Volhynia. The declaration caused a protest by Galician deputies and resulted in their exit from the mission. Simultaneously, Polish authorities interned Ukrainian troops and helped landowners to impose contributions for partitioned land from peasants in territories under their control. This forced Petliura and Livytskyi to issue an appeal on the name of Polish leader
Józef Piłsudski. In late December, Ukrainian troops acting in the enemy rear during the First Winter Campaign established contact with Galician troops, but soldiers of the latter were weakened by typhus and unable to join them. At first, the Ukrainian partisans operated between the lines of Red and White troops, but following the Bolshevik advance ended up in the rear of the Red Army. After continuing operations in the areas of
Yelysavethrad,
Olhopil and
Znamianka, as well as crossing the
Dnieper near
Zolotonosha, in late March they were ordered by Petliura to move in western direction, breaking through the Polish-Bolshevik front. On 6 May 1920 the Ukrainian force exited the Bolshevik-held territory near
Yampil. On 18 October, contrary to its pledge to the Ukrainian side, Poland agreed an armistice with Bolshevik troops, leaving the Ukrainian left flank vulnerable to enemy attacks. During that time, the Ukrainian force counted 23,000 soldiers and was aided by a 5,000-strong squad composed of Russians and Cossacks formed by
Boris Savinkov's Russian Political Committee. These forces were significantly inferior to the Red Army, which was temporarily distracted by the actions of
Pyotr Wrangel's Voluteer Army in Crimea. Nevertheless, the Ukrainian command decided to initiate a general offensive, which was planned to commence on 11 November. However, on 10 November the Bolsheviks struck first and defeated the southern flank of Ukrainian forces. As a result, on 21 November 1920 the Ukrainian army was forced to retreat across the Zbruch, where its soldiers were interned by the Poles.
Guerrilla war by
Yuri Hasenko Starting from 1919, Ukraine experienced chaos as the armies of the Ukrainian Republic, the Bolsheviks, the
Whites, powers of the Entente and
Poland, as well as
anarchist forces such as Nestor Makhno's
Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine fought for control over the country. Numerous uprisings took place during that time, some of them being directed against Petliura's government, while others opposed the Soviet regime or Entente forces. According to
Cheka documentation, between 1917 and 1932, Ukraine was the site of 268 uprisings in over 100
raions, with mutinying peasants killing chekists,
Communists, and
prodotryad members who were requisitioning food by force and engaged in
expropriation. Among the largest anti-Bolshevik rebellions in Ukraine during the existence of the Ukrainian People's Republic were the
Makhnovshchina,
Hryhoriv Uprising, the actions of Otaman Zelenyi,
Kholodnyi Yar partisans and Free Cossacks led by
Semen Hryzlo, as well as the uprisings in
Zazymia, directed against Cheka and the
Bashkir Cavalry Brigade. In 1920 an
ambush was organized against Red Army troops near
Uman. Following the retreat of regular Ukrainian forces, a special headquarters tasked with coordinating anti-Bolshevik insurgent activities in Ukraine was established in Poland under command of Yuriy Tyutyunnyk. By late 1920 the forces of Ukrainian partisans numbered up to 40,000 fighters. Rebel groups were most active in the areas of
Lityn,
Radomyshl,
Cherkasy,
Zvenyhorodka, Katerynoslav and Poltava. Some of the squads continued their activities until 1923-1924. On 12 November 1920, shortly before its retreat from Ukrainian territory, the Directorate adopted a law on the Temporary Supreme Authority of Ukraine. On 3 February 1921 in
Tarnów the Council of the Ukrainian Republic, consisting from representatives of major Ukrainian parties, adopted a declaration to the Ukrainian people, which presented the social and economic program of the Ukrainian People's Republic and warned against unorganized revolts. On 18 March 1921, the Polish government signed the
Peace of Riga, recognizing the
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and confirming the incorporation of Kholm, Podlachia, West Volyn and Western Polissia. As a result of the treaty, in summer 1921 the Council of the Republic was forced to cease its activities. in October 1921 the
Ukrainian National Republic's government-in-exile launched a
series of guerrilla raids into central Ukraine, that reached up to the outskirts of Kyiv in the east. On 4 November, the Directorate's guerrillas captured Korosten and seized large amounts of military supplies. However, on 17 November 1921 their force was surrounded by Bolshevik cavalry and destroyed. Part of the Ukrainian forces managed to escape to Polish territory and was interned, but 359 fighters were captured by the Bolsheviks and shot on 21 November near
Bazar. == Exile ==