Armenia There are numerous private universities and independent faculties in
Armenia, mostly in
Yerevan. As of 2022, there are 31 private higher education institutions in the country, most notably the
American University of Armenia and the
Eurasia International University.
Austria In
Austria, educational institutions must be authorized by the country to legally grant
academic degrees. All state-run universities are governed by the 2002 Austrian Universities' and University Degree Programmes' Organisation Act (Federal Law Gazette No. 120/2002). In 1999, a federal law (
Universitäts-Akkreditierungsgesetz) was passed to allow the
accreditation of private universities. The
Akkreditierungsrat (Accreditation Council) evaluates applicants and issues recommendations to the responsible Austrian accreditation authority (the Austrian Federal Ministry of Science & Research). Accreditation by the council yields a couple of privileges: degrees issued by accredited private universities have the same legal status as those issued by state-run universities. Private universities can appoint or promote
professors. Their students enjoy the same privileges including social security, foreign law, and state scholarships as students at state universities. Educational services of private universities are not subject to
value added tax, and donations are tax-deductible. Accreditations must be renewed regularly and can be withdrawn, e.g., in the case of repeated academic misconduct as happened in 2003 when the accreditation of
International University Vienna was withdrawn. In 2006, when the accreditation of
Imadec University expired, the Accreditation Council rejected any renewal requests. Austrian law provides that private universities in Austria must use the term
Privatuniversität ("private university") in their
German names, although their formal names in other languages are not regulated. Thus, there is the possibility of private institutions employing the term "university" as opposed to "private university" in their advertisements in all languages except German while still complying with Austrian law. While the legal definition of "private university" prohibits funding by the federal government of Austria, funding by other public bodies is not prohibited. Consequently, some of Austria's private universities are partly or wholly funded by provincial governments, while others are fully privately funded. Accreditation of private universities began in 2001. , Austria has 16 private universities. Most are small (fewer than 1000 students) and specialize in only one or two fields of study. Four former private universities are
not accredited anymore: the
International University Vienna, whose accreditation was withdrawn in 2003 due to academic misconduct;
Imadec University, whose first accreditation period ended in January 2006 and was not renewed; TCM Privatuniversität Li Shi Zhen in
Vienna, whose accreditation period ended 2009 without renewal students; and
PEF Private University of Management Vienna, which closed for economic reasons in March 2012.
Belgium Belgium makes a distinction between free institutions (as in free from the State), which are recognized and funded by the
Communities of Belgium (the State until 1990) and follow the same rules and laws as fully public universities, and fully private institutions, which are not recognized nor funded by the authorities, and thus do not issue valid degrees. Private (
free) institutions are predominantly Catholic:
UCLouvain,
KU Leuven or
Saint-Louis University, Brussels. On the contrary, the
Free University of Brussels (nowadays split into
ULB and
VUB) was founded by
masonic individuals. All of these institutions began to be recognized by the State from 1891 onwards. It is forbidden by law to call a fully private institution "university" or "faculty", meaning fully private (non-
free) 'universities' have limited visibility.
Bulgaria Bulgaria has many private universities, among which the most renowned are
New Bulgarian University, located in the capital city
Sofia;
Burgas Free University;
Varna Free University and
American University in Bulgaria.
Finland Finland does not officially recognize private universities but does not explicitly forbid them either.
Helsinki School of Business is an example of one such educational institution operating in this market.
France , in
Jouy-en-Josas, near
Paris in
Lille has a dual system with universities and
grandes écoles. Since 1880, it has been illegal for a private institution to be called "
université", and most of the universities in France are public. In France,
grandes écoles are part of an alternative educational system that operates alongside the mainstream
French public university system.
Grandes écoles can be
public, semi-private or private, but the most prestigious ones are public. These institutions operate mostly in engineering studies and business administration. The best-known semi-private
grandes écoles are generally business, engineering, and humanities schools; they are generally managed by chambers of commerce and industry, with capital open to other private companies. Other
grandes écoles are entirely private, but this is rarer, and they sometimes establish partnerships with public universities. Universities and
grandes écoles compete in these two fields. Some of them report to the Ministry of Higher Education, such as
Arts et Métiers ParisTech and , and a few to the Ministry of Defense, such as . Several private
grandes écoles are members of the , a lobbying group representing grandes écoles. Most
grandes écoles can be joined after following two years of
classe préparatoire aux grandes écoles, an intensive program following the
baccalauréat. A selective examination after the two additional years is taken to enter a
grande école. Following the
Bologna Process, this full 5-year course (two years of preparatory classes plus 3 years in engineering or business school) is equivalent to a master's degree. For their engineering programs, the
grandes écoles award an "''
Diplôme d'Ingénieur''", similar to a
Master of Engineering degree. This
engineer's degree, required to use the engineer title in France, is strictly protected and can only be awarded by state-accredited
grandes écoles, via the Engineering Accreditation Commission.
Business schools that are
grandes écoles (like
HEC or
ESCP) offer a "
Programme Grande École" or "PGE" (generally translated into English as "
Master in Management", or "MiM"), which delivers a
state-accredited diploma that is considerably more prestigious than a French master's degree in management delivered by
university schools of management (IAE) or faculties in the mainstream French university system.
Grandes écoles for studying business administration are usually part of the
chambers of commerce. For example,
HEC is part of the
Paris Chamber of Commerce and is therefore semi-private. Some older private institutions were created in
1875, under the regime of the Free Higher Education Act of 1875. These institutions have been called Catholic universities since 1880, or formally the "Catholic Institutes". There are five of these: the Catholic universities of
Lille,
Lyon,
Paris,
Toulouse, and
the West. These institutions provide courses in all academic fields (engineering, law, medical, economics, arts, business administration, sociology). One may join a university after a high school degree and study there for a
licence (bachelor's), master's degree, or doctoral program. By law, private institutions may grant states degrees after agreeing a contract with public universities.
Germany As of 2024,
Germany has 110 private universities (called
Privathochschule) and 38 church-run universities (called
kirchliche Hochschule). Similar to the state-run universities, they are subdivided into
Universitäten (research universities), (universities of applied science) and
Kunst- und Musikhochschulen (
art schools). Private universities in Germany need institutional accreditation by the state. The first private university in Germany, the Fresenius University of Applied Sciences, was established in 1848.
EBS University of Business and Law opened in 1971. Some institutions, such as
Lancaster University Leipzig, operate as private branch campuses of universities headquartered outside the country. Though private universities are numerous in Germany, they represent only less than 1% of all students. Some private universities, including
Hanseatic University Rostock (2007–2009) and the International University in Germany in
Bruchsal, have gone out of business. As of 2026, universities such as
WHU,
Frankfurt School of Finance & Management and
Constructor are ranked as top private universities. Most of the church universities are run by the Protestant or Catholic churches; however, there is one Jewish university (
Hochschule für Jüdische Studien) in
Heidelberg.
Greece In
Greece, private universities are prohibited by
the constitution (Article 16). However, laboratories of liberal studies (, ) operate freely in the country and based on a law from the 1930s, they are registered as private for-profit businesses and regulated by the Greek Ministry of Commerce. Their academic degrees, which are not recognised in Greece, are directly provided to students by foreign universities in the
United Kingdom,
United States of America, or other countries, usually through
franchise or validation agreements (the franchise agreement usually being considered better). This has limited access to the laboratories, which usually teach in English, to high-income Greeks who for various reasons (usually family matters) did not want to go abroad. In 2008, a law was introduced that forced all private institutions collaborating with foreign universities to offer programmes in the country, to register with the Greek Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs as
colleges (, ) by August 2009. Further amendments to the framework in 2010, 2012, and 2013 (4111/2013, 4093/2012) were introduced. Today there are a series of
private colleges in Greece mostly in
Athens and
Thessaloniki.
Ireland In the
Republic of Ireland, a private university (more commonly known as a
private college) is a university that is not funded by the state, and therefore not covered by the free-fees initiative. All
universities,
institutes of technology,
colleges of education, and the
National College of Ireland and some religious institutions are publicly funded and therefore covered by
free-fees initiative. There are a few private colleges that are highly specialized such as
Griffith College Dublin,
Dorset College and
Dublin Business School. The
Higher Education Colleges Association is a representative body for private colleges in Ireland. Private colleges in Ireland can seek to have their programmes validated/accredited by the
Higher Education and Training Awards Council.
Netherlands in
Breukelen Nyenrode Business University is the only private university in the
Netherlands at the graduate level. The university was founded in 1946. It serves as a
graduate school for business and management. Both programs are taught in English. Recently, Nyenrode merged with the Institute for CPA Education and both institutions share their facilities. The Nyenrode Business University also contains a campus and an active student body. Other Dutch private universities are universities of applied sciences where one can obtain a bachelor's or master's degree but not a PhD. These include
Wittenborg University, Business School Notenboom (founded in 1958) and IVA Driebergen for the automotive industry with its earliest beginnings in 1930.
Poland There are 321 accredited private colleges in Poland. They award bachelor's degrees, master's degrees and doctorate degrees.
Portugal , a private university in
Lisbon The oldest non-state-run university was the
Universidade Católica Portuguesa – UCP (Catholic University of Portugal), a
Catholic private university (
concordatory status) that was the first to be founded in 1967 and was officially recognized in 1971. UCP offers some well-recognized degrees and is reputed for the economics, law and business management degrees it awards at its Lisbon branch. After the
Carnation Revolution of 1974, in the 1980s and 1990s, a boom of educational private institutions was experienced in Portugal, and many private universities started to open. Most had a poor reputation and were known for making it easy for students to enter and also to get high grades. In 2007, several of those private universities, or their heirs, were investigated and faced compulsory closing (for example, the infamous
Independente University and
Internacional University closings along with the
Moderna University scandal) or official criticism with recommendations that the state-managed investigation proposed for improving their quality and avoid termination. In the mid-2000s, within the
Bologna process, a reorganization of higher education was started which included more stringent regulations for private education and expanded state policies with regard to private education quality assurance and
educational accreditation. In general, private higher education institutions were often considered to be the last resort for underachieving applicants who did not score enough points in the admission examinations to enter the main public institutions. Nearly open-admission policies have hurt private universities' reputation and the actual quality of their alumni. Without large endowments like those received in universities of other countries – like the U.S. for many of its private universities and colleges that are attractive to the best scholars, researchers, and students – the private
higher education institutions of Portugal, with a few exceptions, do not have either the financial support or the academic profile to reach the highest teaching and research standards of the top Portuguese
public universities. In addition, most private universities have faced a restrictive lack of collaboration with the major enterprises which, have developed fruitful relationships with many public higher education institutions. Most Portuguese private universities specialise in a limited number of fields, most often in the
social sciences and
humanities.
Serbia There are several private universities and independent
faculties in Serbia, mostly in
Belgrade. They were founded in the 1990s and 2000s.
Spain The expansion of private universities in Spain began mainly in the early 1990s, following legislative changes that allowed the creation of new non-public institutions. Since then, the number of private universities has grown steadily, particularly in large metropolitan areas. The first private university in Spain is generally considered to be the University of Deusto, founded in 1886 in Bilbao by the Society of Jesus (Jesuits). Other well-known examples include
Comillas Pontifical University (Madrid),
University of Navarra (Pamplona),
ESADE (Barcelona),
EU Business School (Barcelona), and
IE University (Madrid).
Switzerland In addition to the public
Universities in Switzerland,
Switzerland has several private universities.
Turkey In
Turkey, private universities are required by the Higher Education Law (Article 3/c and Annexed Article 2) to be established and operated by foundations, which are non-profit private legal entities. These institutions possess public legal personality under the same law and are classified as foundation universities () in the relevant regulations. As a result, they are commonly referred to as foundation universities rather than private universities. As of 2025, 75 foundation universities are in operation, with
Bilkent University, established in 1984, being the first.
United Kingdom , a private university in
Buckingham, United Kingdom There are six fully private universities in the United Kingdom: the non-profit
University of Buckingham,
Regent's University London and
Richmond American University London, and the for-profit
BPP University,
University of Law and
Arden University. All other British universities are partly publicly funded and regulated. The government regulates tuition fees, student funding, and student loans, whilst also commissioning and regulating research assessments and teaching reviews. However, unlike in Continental European countries, the British government does not own universities' assets, and university staff are not civil servants: the status as a public body arises from accepting funding from bodies such as the
Office for Students (OfS) in England; any university can, in principle, choose to leave the publicly funded sector and the associated fee cap (although they would remain subject to OfS regulation, which applies to all higher education providers in England). Since September 2012 government funding for teaching and background funding for research has been substantially reduced, with one study from that year indicating that annual government funding for teaching and research would make up just 15% of universities' income by 2015. In the UK, an institution can only use the title of "University" or "University College" if it has been granted by the
Privy Council or (in England) by the
Office for Students, under the terms of the
Further and Higher Education Act 1992 as amended by the
Higher Education and Research Act 2017. == North and Central America ==