Unmanned ground vehicle

In 1904, Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres Quevedo was developing a radio-based control system, which he named Telekino. He chose to conduct an initial test in the form of a three-wheeled land vehicle (tricycle), which had an effective range of 20 to 30 meters, the first known example of an unmanned ground vehicle. The first prototypes of explosive robotic drones were Aubriot-Gabet 'land torpedoes' invented in France in 1915 and the Crocodile Schneider-Creusot. Twenty examples were put into service with the 2nd French Army in July 1915. A working remote-controlled car was reported in the October 1921 issue of RCA's World Wide Wireless magazine. The car was controlled wirelessly via radio; it was thought the technology could be adapted to tanks. In the 1930s, the USSR developed the Teletank, a small tank, armed with a machine gun. It was remotely controlled by radio from another tank. Teletanks operated in the Winter War (1939–1940) between Finland and the USSR and at the start of the German-Soviet War after Germany invaded the USSR in 1941. During World War II, the British developed a radio-controlled version of their Matilda II infantry tank in 1941. Known as "Black Prince", it would have been used for drawing the fire of concealed anti-tank guns, or for demolition missions. Due to the costs of converting the transmission system of the tank to Wilson-type gearboxes, an order for 60 tanks was cancelled. From 1942, the German used the Goliath tracked mine for remote-controlled demolition work. The Goliath was a tracked vehicle carrying 60 kg of explosive charge, directed through a control cable. It modeled a miniature French tracked vehicle found after the German defeat of France in 1940. The combination of cost, low speed, reliance on a cable for control, and poor protection against weapons, meant that the Goliath was not considered a success. The first major mobile robot development effort, named "Shakey", took place during the 1960s as a research study for the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). Shakey was a wheeled platform that had a TV camera, sensors, and a computer to help guide its tasks of picking up wooden blocks and placing them in certain areas based on commands. DARPA subsequently developed a series of autonomous and semi-autonomous ground robots, often in conjunction with the U.S. Army. As part of the Strategic Computing Initiative of 1983–1993, DARPA demonstrated the Autonomous Land Vehicle, (ALV), the first UGV that could navigate completely autonomously on and off roads at useful speeds. UGVs rose in significance after the full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine and the dramatic rise in use of unmanned aerial vehicles. On March 29, 2024, as part of the Eastern Ukraine Campaign, a platoon of Russian UGVs equipped with AGS-17 automatic grenade launchers was deployed for an assault near the town of Berdychi in Ukraine, marking the first ever use of UGVs for direct frontline assaults. During an undated operation, the 3rd Assault Brigade claimed the world's first surrender of enemy soldiers to unmanned drones in the Kharkiv Oblast. FPV and ground drones were used to attack the Russian positions. As more ground drones approached the position, the Russians opted to surrender. The Ukrainian ground drones then guided the Russians soldiers to the Ukrainian position where they surrendered. The press release read: "For the first time in history: Russian soldiers surrendered to the 3rd Assault Brigade's ground drones,". On 22 December 2025, the 3rd Assault Brigade said that a Ukrainian UGV, a Droid TW 12.7 armed with a .50-caliber machine gun, held off Russian attacks for 45 days while being operated either remotely or using AI. The first time a position was held solely by an UGV without direct human support such as infantry. ==Design==

UGVs generally include: a vehicle platform, sensors, control systems, guidance interface, communication links, and systems integration features. Platform The platform can be a car, truck, all-terrain vehicle, etc., and includes the locomotive apparatus, sensors, and power source. Tracks, wheels, and legs are common forms of locomotion. The platform may include an articulated body and may join with other units. Power sources can be internal combustion engines, batteries, or hydrogen. Sensors Sensors create a model of the environment, showing other vehicles, pedestrians, and obstacles. They also locate the vehicle on the navigation path. Sensors can include compasses, odometers, inclinometers, gyroscopes, cameras, laser and ultrasound rangefinders, GPS radios, and infrared technology. Control systems Unmanned ground vehicles are generally considered Remote-Operated or Autonomous, although Supervisory Control is a combination of autonomous and remote operation. used by the Israel Defense Forces to operate as part of the border security operations Remote operated A remote-operated UGV is controlled by a human operator. The operator makes decisions based upon either direct visual observation or sensors such as cameras. A basic example of remote operation would be a remote-controlled toy car. Examples: • Autonomous Solutions • BTR-90 "Krymsk" APC • Clearpath Robotics • DOK-ING mine clearing, firefighting, and underground mining UGVs • DRDO Daksh • Foster-Miller TALON • Frontline Robotics Teleoperated UGV (TUGV) • Gladiator tactical unmanned ground vehicle (used by the United States Marine Corps) • G-NIUS Autonomous Unmanned Ground Vehicles (Israel Aerospace Industries/Elbit Systems joint venture) Guardium • GROVER – Goddard remotely operated vehicle for exploration and research • Uran-9 • iRobot PackBot • MacroUSA Armadillo V2 Micro UGV (MUGV) and Scorpion SUGV • Mesa Associates Tactical Integrated Light-Force Deployment Assembly (MATILDA) • Nerekhta UGV, appeared at Zapad 2021 during Belarus-Russia exercise • Nova 5 • Remotec ANDROS F6A • Ripsaw MS1 • Robowatch ASENDRO • Unmanned Snatch Land Rover. • THeMIS used by the Royal Netherlands Army and developed by Milrem Robotics • Unmanned ground vehicle Miloš used by Serbian Armed Forces • Vecna Robotics Battlefield Extraction-Assist Robot (BEAR) • VIPeR Autonomous . Canceled in 2011. An autonomous UGV (AGV) is an autonomous robot that replaces the human controller with artificial intelligence technologies. The vehicle uses sensors to feed a model of the environment, which supports a control system that determines the next action. This eliminates the need for humans to watch over the vehicle. An autonomous vehicle must have the ability to: • Navigate based on maps that allow the vehicle to pick a route from origin to destination. • Detect objects such as people and vehicles. • Travel between waypoints without human assistance. • Avoid harming people, property or itself, unless those are part of its mission. A robot may also be able to learn autonomously. Autonomous learning includes the ability to: • Gain capabilities. • Adjust strategies based on the surroundings. • Adapt to surroundings. • Behave ethically in pursuit of mission goals. Armed autonomous machines must distinguish between combatants and civilians. This is particularly true in conflicts where combatants intentionally disguise themselves as civilians to avoid detection. Even highly accurate but imperfect systems can pose unacceptable civilian losses. Guidance interface The interface between the machine and the human operator can include a joystick, autonomous software, or voice commands. ==Uses==

A wide variety of UGVs were in use as of 2025. They typically replace humans in hazardous situations, such as handling explosives and in bomb disabling vehicles, where additional strength or smaller size is needed, or where humans cannot safely go. Military applications include surveillance, reconnaissance, and target acquisition. UGVs are effective in naval operations, and for the Marine Corps in combat; they can help in logistics operations on land and sea. UGVs are under development for peacekeeping operations, ground surveillance, gatekeeper/checkpoint operations, urban street presence and to enhance police and military raids in urban settings. UGVs can "draw first fire" from adversaries—reducing military and police casualties. Furthermore, UGVs are used in rescue and recovery mission and were used to find survivors following 9/11 at Ground Zero. In Hong Kong, the police and other workers use driverless vehicles. Space NASA's Mars Exploration Rover project included two UGVs, Spirit and Opportunity. Both performed beyond design parameters. This is attributed to redundant systems, careful handling, and long-term interface decision-making. Opportunity was operational for more than 14 years beyond its intended lifespan of three months. Curiosity landed on Mars on 6 August 2012, and its original two-year mission has since been extended until October 2025 ( days longer than expected). Civilian and commercial Civilian applications are automating processes in manufacturing environments. They work as autonomous tour guides for the Carnegie Museum of Natural History and the Swiss National Exhibition Expo. They can be used to monitor crop and livestock health. Manufacturing In the manufacturing environment, UGVs are used for transporting materials. Aerospace companies use these vehicles for precision positioning and transporting heavy, bulky components between manufacturing stations, which is faster than using large cranes and can keep people out of dangerous areas. Mining UGVs can be used to traverse and map mine tunnels. Combining radar, laser, and visual sensors, UGVs are in development to map 3D rock surfaces in open pit mines. Supply chain In the warehouse management system, UGVs have multiple uses from transferring goods with autonomous forklifts and conveyors to stock scanning and taking inventory. Automated Guided Vehicles are extensively used in warehouses to deal with goods that are dangerous to humans (e.g. corrosive and flammable goods) or need special handling such as passing through freezers. Emergency response UGVs are used in many emergency situations including urban search and rescue, firefighting, and nuclear response. Military , a quadruped robot, was being developed as a mule that can traverse difficult terrain. SWORDS units equipped with various weaponry , a developmental combat UGV designed and built by Howe & Howe Technologies for evaluation by the United States Army destroying a fake IED UGV use by the military has saved many lives. Applications include explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) such as landmines, loading heavy items, and repairing ground conditions under enemy fire. By 2013, the U.S. Army had purchased 7,000 such machines and 750 had been destroyed. The U.S. military is building UGVs to act as armed robots outfitted with machine guns and grenade launchers that may replace soldiers in combat. Such uses potentially pose ethical concerns by removing humans from the OODA loop. Examples SARGE SARGE is a 4-wheel drive all-terrain vehicle that uses the frame of the Yamaha Breeze. The objective is to provide each infantry battalion with up to eight SARGE units. SARGE is primarily used for remote surveillance; sent ahead of the infantry to investigate potential ambushes. Multi-Utility Tactical Transport Built by General Dynamics Land Systems, the Multi-Utility Tactical Transport ("MUTT") comes in 4-, 6- and 8-wheeled variants. It was tested by the US Marine Corps in July 2016 and was selected for the US Army's Squad Multipurpose Equipment Transport (SMET) unmanned ground system requirement in November 2019. GDLS signed a $162.4m contract to deliver 624 UGVs through October 2024. X-2 X-2 is a medium-sized tracked UGV built by Digital Concepts Engineering. It is based on a previous autonomous robotic system designed for use in EOD, search and rescue (SAR), perimeter patrol, communications relay, mine detection and clearing, and as a light weapons platform. It measures 1.31 m in length, weighs 300 kg and can reach speeds of 5 km/h. It traverses slopes up to 45' steep and crosses deep mud. The vehicle is controlled using the Marionette system which is also used on Wheelbarrow EOD robots. The Warrior The Warrior is a new model of the PackBot, but over five times its size. It can travel at speeds of up to 15 mph, and is the first PackBot capable of carrying a weapon. Like the Packbot, it plays a key role in checking for explosives. They are capable of carrying 68 kilograms and travelling at 8 mph. TerraMax TerraMax is designed to be integrated into any tactical wheeled vehicle and is fully incorporated into the brakes, steering, engine, and transmission. Fitted vehicles retain the ability to be driver-operated. Vehicles manufactured by Oshkosh Defense and fitted with the package competed in the DARPA Grand Challenges of 2004 and 2005, and the DARPA Urban Challenge of 2007. The Marine Corps Warfighting Lab selected TerraMax-equipped MTVRs for the Cargo UGV project initiated in 2010, culminating in a technology concept demonstration for the Office of Naval Research in 2015. Demonstrated uses for the upgraded vehicles include unmanned route clearance (with a mine roller) and reducing personnel required for transportation convoys. THeMIS THeMIS (Tracked Hybrid Modular Infantry System) is a ground-based armed drone vehicle designed largely for military applications. It is built by Milrem Robotics in Estonia. The vehicle's open architecture gives it multi-mission capability. Its main purpose is to increase situational awareness, provide improved intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance over wide areas, support on-base logistics, provide last-mile resupply for frontline units, and aid battle damage assessment. The vehicle serves as a transport platform, remote weapon station, IED detection and disposal unit, etc. It reduces physical and cognitive load, increases standoff distance, force protection, and survivability. THeMIS Combat UGV includes an integrated self-stabilizing remote-controlled weapon system that provides direct fire support for manoeuvre forces. The weapons system provides high precision over wide areas, day and night, increasing standoff distance, force protection, and survivability. They can be equipped with light or heavy machine guns, 40 mm grenade launchers, 30 mm autocannons, and Anti-Tank Missile Systems. THeMIS ISR UGVs have multi-sensor intelligence gathering capabilities. The system can aid dismounted infantry units, border guard, and law enforcement agencies to collect and process raw information and decrease the reaction time for commanders. Type-X The Type-X is a 12-tonne tracked and armored robotic combat vehicle designed and produced by Milrem Robotics in Estonia. Measuring 600 cm long, 290 cm wide, and 220 cm tall, this heavy-duty vehicle weighs in at 12,000 kg and can carry a maximum payload of 4,100 kg. It can be fitted with either autocannon turrets up to 50 mm or various other weapons systems, such as ATGMs, SAMs, radars, mortars, etc. Talon The Talon is primarily used for bomb disposal, and is waterproof at 100 ft depth so that it can search for explosives underwater. The Talon was first used in 2000, and over 3,000 units have been distributed worldwide. By 2004, The Talon had been used in over 20,000 separate missions. These missions largely consisted of situations that were considered to be too dangerous for humans. Autonomous Small Scale Construction Machine (ASSCM) The ASSCM is a civilian unmanned ground vehicle developed in Yuzuncu Yil University via a grant from TUBITAK (Project code 110M396). The vehicle is a low-cost small scale construction machine that can grade soft soil. The machine is capable of autonomous grading within a polygon once the polygon border is defined. The machine determines its position by CP-DGPS and direction by consecutive position measurements. Taifun-M In April 2014, the Russian Army unveiled Taifun-M UGV as a remote sentry to guard RS-24 Yars and RT-2PM2 Topol-M missile sites. The Taifun-M features laser targeting and a cannon to carry out reconnaissance and patrol, detect and destroy stationary or moving targets, and provide fire support for security personnel. They are remotely operated. UKAP Turkey's unmanned ground vehicle Weapon Platform (UKAP) was developed by defense contractors Katmerciler and ASELSAN. The vehicle is equipped with the 12.7 mm SARP remote-controlled, stabilized weapon systems. Ripsaw The Ripsaw is a developmental unmanned ground combat vehicle designed and built by Howe & Howe Technologies for evaluation by the United States Army. Riderless bike The coModule electric bicycle is remotely operated via smartphone, with users able to accelerate, turn and brake the bike by tilting their device. The bike can drive autonomously in a closed environment. ==See also==