Literature '' Venice has long been a source of inspiration for authors, playwrights, and poets, and at the forefront of the technological development of printing and publishing. Two of the most noted Venetian writers were
Marco Polo in the Middle Ages and, later,
Giacomo Casanova. Polo (1254–1324) was a merchant who voyaged to
the Orient. His series of books, co-written with
Rustichello da Pisa and titled
Il Milione provided important knowledge of the lands east of Europe, from the Middle East to China, Japan, and Russia.
Giacomo Casanova (1725–1798) was a prolific writer and adventurer best remembered for his autobiography,
Histoire De Ma Vie (
Story of My Life), which links his colourful lifestyle to the city of Venice. Venetian playwrights followed the old Italian theatre tradition of ''
commedia dell'arte''.
Ruzante (1502–1542),
Carlo Goldoni (1707–1793), and
Carlo Gozzi (1720–1806) used the Venetian dialect extensively in their comedies. Venice has also inspired writers from abroad. Shakespeare set
Othello and
The Merchant of Venice in the city, as did
Thomas Mann his novel,
Death in Venice (1912). The French writer
Philippe Sollers spent most of his life in Venice and published
A Dictionary For Lovers of Venice in 2004. The city features prominently in
Henry James's
The Aspern Papers and
The Wings of the Dove. It is also visited in
Evelyn Waugh's
Brideshead Revisited and
Marcel Proust's
In Search of Lost Time. Perhaps the best-known children's book set in Venice is
The Thief Lord, written by the German author
Cornelia Funke. Venice is described in
Goethe's
Italian Journey, 1786–1788. He describes the architecture, including a church by
Palladio and also attends the opera. He visits the shipbuilding yards at the
Arsenal. He is fascinated by the street life of Venice, which he describes as a kind of performance. The poet
Ugo Foscolo (1778–1827), born in
Zante, an island that at the time belonged to the Republic of Venice, was also a
revolutionary who wanted to see a free republic established in Venice following its fall to
Napoleon. Venice also inspired the poetry of
Ezra Pound, who wrote his first literary work in the city. Pound died in 1972, and his remains are buried in Venice's
cemetery island of
San Michele. Venice is also linked to the technological aspects of writing. The city was the location of one of Italy's earliest printing presses called
Aldine Press, established by
Aldus Manutius in 1494. From this beginning Venice developed as an important typographic centre. Around fifteen percent of all printing of the fifteenth century came from Venice, and even as late as the 18th century was responsible for printing half of Italy's published books.
In literature and adapted works The city is a particularly popular setting for essays, novels, and other works of fictional or non-fictional literature. Examples of these include: •
Aretino's works (1492–1556) •
Shakespeare's
Merchant of Venice () and
Othello (1603). •
Ben Jonson's
Volpone (1605–6). •
Casanova's autobiographical
History of My Life . •
Voltaire's
Candide (1759). •
Letitia Elizabeth Landon wrote poetry for two pictures of Venice; one for
The Embarkation, drawn by
Clarkson Stanfield for The Amulet, 1833, the other for
Santa Salute, drawn by
Charles Bentley for the Literary Souvenir, 1835. •
Ernest Hemingway's
Across the River and into the Trees (1950). •
Italo Calvino's
Invisible Cities (1972). •
Anne Rice's
Cry to Heaven (1982). •
Donna Leon's Commissario Guido Brunetti
crime fiction series and cookbook, and the German television series based on the novels (1992–2019). •
Philippe Sollers'
Watteau in Venice (1994). •
Michael Dibdin's
Dead Lagoon (1994), one in a series of novels featuring Venice-born policeman Aurelio Zen. •
Jacqueline Carey's ''
Kushiel's Chosen'' (2002), an
historical fantasy or
alternate history of Venice – complete with masquerades, canals, and a doge – taking place in a city known as La Serenissima. •
John Berendt's
The City of Falling Angels (2005) •
Gilbert and Sullivan's
comic opera The Gondoliers (1889) •
Thomas Mann's novella,
Death in Venice (1912), was the basis for Benjamin Britten's opera
Death in Venice (1973) and the movie
Death in Venice (1971), directed by
Luchino Visconti.
Foreign words of Venetian origin Some English words with a Venetian etymology include
arsenal,
ciao,
ghetto,
gondola,
imbroglio,
lagoon,
lazaret,
lido,
Montenegro, and
regatta.
Printing By the end of the 15th century, Venice had become the European capital of printing, having 417 printers by 1500, and being one of the first cities in Italy (after Subiaco and Rome) to have a printing press, after those established in Germany. The most important printing office was the
Aldine Press of
Aldus Manutius; which in 1497 issued the first printed work of
Aristotle; in 1499 printed the
Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, considered the most beautiful book of the
Renaissance; and established modern
punctuation, page format, and
italic type.
Painting Venice, especially during the
Renaissance, and
Baroque periods, was a major centre of art and developed a unique style known as the
Venetian painting. In the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Venice, along with
Florence and Rome, became one of the most important centres of art in Europe, and numerous wealthy Venetians became patrons of the arts. Venice at the time was a rich and prosperous
Maritime Republic, which controlled a vast sea and trade empire. In the 16th century, Venetian painting was developed through influences from the Paduan School and
Antonello da Messina, who introduced the oil painting technique of the
Van Eyck brothers. It is signified by a warm colour scale and a picturesque use of colour. Early masters were the Bellini and Vivarini families, followed by
Giorgione and
Titian, then
Tintoretto and
Veronese. In the early 16th century, there was rivalry in Venetian painting between the
disegno and
colorito techniques.
Canvases (the common painting surface) originated in Venice during the early Renaissance. In the 18th century, Venetian painting had a revival with
Tiepolo's decorative painting and
Canaletto's and
Guardi's panoramic views.
Venetian architecture is an example of Venetian Gothic architecture alongside the
Grand Canal. Venice is built on unstable mud-banks, and had a very crowded city centre by the Middle Ages. On the other hand, the city was largely safe from riot, civil feuds, and invasion much earlier than most European cities. These factors, with the canals and the great wealth of the city, made for unique building styles. Venice has a rich and diverse
architectural style, the most prominent of which is the
Gothic style.
Venetian Gothic architecture is a term given to a Venetian building style combining the use of the Gothic
lancet arch with the curved
ogee arch, due to
Byzantine and
Ottoman influences. The style originated in 14th-century Venice, with a confluence of
Byzantine style from Constantinople, Islamic influences from
Spain and Venice's eastern trading partners, and early Gothic forms from mainland Italy. Chief examples of the style are the
Doge's Palace and the
Ca' d'Oro in the city. The city also has several
Renaissance and
Baroque buildings, including the
Ca' Pesaro and the
Ca' Rezzonico. Venetian taste was conservative and
Renaissance architecture only really became popular in buildings from about the 1470s. More than in the rest of Italy, it kept much of the typical form of the Gothic
palazzi, which had evolved to suit Venetian conditions. In turn the transition to
Baroque architecture was also fairly gentle. This gives the crowded buildings on the Grand Canal and elsewhere an essential harmony, even where buildings from very different periods sit together. For example, round-topped arches are far more common in Renaissance buildings than elsewhere.
Ca' Rezzonico Rococo style It can be argued that Venice produced the best and most refined
Rococo designs. At the time, the Venetian economy was in decline. It had lost most of its maritime power, was lagging behind its rivals in political importance, and its society had become decadent, with tourism increasingly the mainstay of the economy. But Venice remained a centre of fashion. Venetian rococo was well known as rich and luxurious, with usually very extravagant designs. Unique Venetian furniture types included the
divani da portego, and long rococo couches and
pozzetti, objects meant to be placed against the wall. Bedrooms of rich Venetians were usually sumptuous and grand, with rich damask, velvet, and silk drapery and curtains, and beautifully carved rococo beds with statues of
putti, flowers, and angels.
Glass goblet Venice is known for its ornate glass-work, known as
Venetian glass, which is world-renowned for being colourful, elaborate, and skillfully made. Many of the important characteristics of these objects had been developed by the 13th century. Toward the end of that century, the centre of the Venetian glass industry moved to
Murano, an offshore island in Venice. The glass made there is known as
Murano glass. Byzantine craftsmen played an important role in the development of Venetian glass. When Constantinople was sacked in the
Fourth Crusade in 1204, some fleeing artisans came to Venice; when the
Ottomans took Constantinople in 1453, still more glassworkers arrived. By the 16th century, Venetian artisans had gained even greater control over the colour and transparency of their glass, and had mastered a variety of decorative techniques. Despite efforts to keep Venetian glassmaking techniques within Venice, they became known elsewhere, and Venetian-style glassware was produced in other Italian cities and other countries of Europe. Some of the most important brands of glass in the world today are still produced in the historical glass factories on Murano. They are: Venini, Barovier & Toso,
Pauly, Millevetri, and Seguso. Barovier & Toso is considered one of the 100
oldest companies in the world, formed in 1295. In February 2021, the world learned that Venetian glass
trade beads had been found at three prehistoric
Inuit sites in
Alaska, including Punyik Point. Uninhabited today, and located from the
Continental Divide in the
Brooks Range, the area was on ancient trade routes from the
Bering Sea to the
Arctic Ocean. From their creation in Venice, researchers believe the likely route these artifacts traveled was across
Europe, then
Eurasia and finally over the
Bering Strait, making this discovery "the first documented instance of the presence of indubitable European materials in prehistoric sites in the western hemisphere as the result of overland transport across the Eurasian continent." After
radiocarbon dating materials found near the beads, archaeologists estimated their arrival on the continent to sometime between 1440 and 1480, predating
Christopher Columbus. The dating and provenance has been challenged by other researchers who point out that such beads were not made in Venice until the mid-16th century and that an early 17th century French origin is possible.
Festivals The
Carnival of Venice is held annually in the city, It lasts for around two weeks and ends on
Shrove Tuesday.
Venetian masks are worn. The
Venice Biennale is one of the most important events in the arts calendar. In 1895 an
Esposizione biennale artistica nazionale (biennial exhibition of Italian art) was inaugurated. In September 1942, the activities of the Biennale were interrupted by the war, but resumed in 1948. The
Festa del Redentore is held in mid-July. It began as a feast to give thanks for the end of the plague of 1576. A bridge of barges is built connecting Giudecca to the rest of Venice, and fireworks play an important role. The
Venice Film Festival () is the oldest film festival in the world. Founded by Count
Giuseppe Volpi di Misurata in 1932 as the ''Esposizione Internazionale d'Arte Cinematografica'', the festival has since taken place every year in late August or early September on the island of the
Lido. Screenings take place in the historic
Palazzo del Cinema on the Lungomare Marconi. It is one of the world's most prestigious film festivals and is part of the Venice Biennale.
Music opera house in the city Venice has played an important role in the development of
Italian music. The medieval
Republic of Venice was often popularly called the "Republic of Music", and an anonymous Frenchman of the 17th century is said to have remarked that "In every [Venetian] home, someone is playing a musical instrument or singing. There is music everywhere." During the 16th century, Venice became one of the most important musical centres of Europe, marked by a characteristic style of composition (the
Venetian school) and the development of the
Venetian polychoral style under composers such as
Adrian Willaert, who worked at
St Mark's Basilica. Venice was the early centre of music printing;
Ottaviano Petrucci began publishing music almost as soon as this technology was available, and his publishing enterprise helped to attract composers from all over Europe, especially from France and
Flanders. By the end of the century, Venice was known for the splendor of its music, as exemplified in the "colossal style" of
Andrea and
Giovanni Gabrieli, which used multiple choruses and instrumental groups. Venice was also the home of many noted composers during the
baroque period, such as
Antonio Vivaldi,
Tomaso Albinoni,
Ippolito Ciera,
Giovanni Picchi, and
Girolamo Dalla Casa, to name but a few.
Orchestras Venice is the home of numerous orchestras such as, the
Orchestra della Fenice,
Rondò Veneziano, Interpreti Veneziani, and
Venice Baroque Orchestra.
Cinema, media, and popular culture is the oldest film festival in the world and one of the most prestigious and publicized. The city has been the setting or chosen location of numerous films, games, works of fine art and literature (including essays, fiction, non-fiction, and poems), music videos, television shows, and other cultural references. Notable examples of this are the films
Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade and
Casino Royale, the
second part of the Japanese manga series ''
JoJo's Bizarre Adventure and the video game Sly 3: Honor Among Thieves''.
Photography Fulvio Roiter was the pioneer in artistic photography in Venice, followed by a number of photographers whose works are often reproduced on postcards, thus reaching a widest international popular exposure.
Luca Zordan, a New York City based photographer was born in Venice.
Cuisine Venetian cuisine is characterized by seafood, but also includes garden products from Sant'Erasmo island, rice from the mainland, game, and
polenta. Venice is not known for a particular cuisine of its own: it combines local traditions with influences stemming from age-old contacts with distant countries. These include
sarde in saór (sardines marinated to preserve them for long voyages);
bacalà mantecato (a recipe based on Norwegian
stockfish and extra-virgin olive oil);
bisàto (marinated eel);
risi e bisi – rice, peas and (unsmoked) bacon;
fegato alla veneziana, Venetian-style veal liver;
risi e bisi (rice and beans);
risòto col néro de sépe (risotto with cuttlefish, blackened by their own ink);
cichéti, refined and delicious tidbits (akin to
tapas);
antipasti (appetizers); and
prosecco, sparkling light -body white wine. In addition, Venice is known for the golden, oval-shaped cookies called
baìcoli, and for other types of sweets, such as:
pan del pescaór (bread of the fisherman); cookies with almonds and pistachio nuts; cookies with fried Venetian cream, or the
bussolài (
butter biscuits and
shortbread made in the shape of a ring or an "S") from the island of Burano; the
galàni or
cróstoli (
angel wings); the
frìtole (fried spherical doughnuts); the
fregolòtta (a crumbly cake with almonds); a milk pudding called
rosàda; and cookies called
zaléti, whose ingredients include yellow maize flour. The dessert
tiramisù is generally thought to have been invented in
Treviso in the 1970s, and is popular in the
Veneto area.
Fashion and shopping In the 14th century, many young Venetian men began wearing tight-fitting multicoloured hose, the designs on which indicated the
Compagnie della Calza ("Trouser Club") to which they belonged. The Venetian Senate passed
sumptuary laws, but these merely resulted in changes in fashion in order to circumvent the law. Dull garments were worn over colourful ones, which then were cut to show the hidden colours resulting in the spread of men's "slashed" fashions in the 15th century. Today, Venice is a major fashion and shopping centre; not as important as
Milan,
Florence, and Rome, but on a par with
Verona,
Turin,
Vicenza,
Naples, and
Genoa.
Roberta di Camerino is the only major
Italian fashion brand to be based in Venice. Founded in 1945, it is renowned for its innovative handbags made by Venetian artisans and often covered in locally woven
velvet. ==International relations==