Antiquity Middle Ages and
Carloman's 879 victory over the
Vikings;
Jean Fouquet,
Grandes Chroniques de France During the European
Middle Ages, there were three primary types of war horses: the
destrier, the
courser, and the
rouncey, which differed in size and usage. A generic word used to describe medieval war horses was
charger, which appears interchangeable with the other terms. The medieval war horse was of moderate size, rarely exceeding . Heavy horses were logistically difficult to maintain and less adaptable to varied terrains. The destrier of the
early Middle Ages was moderately larger than the courser or rouncey, in part to accommodate heavier armoured
knights. However, destriers were not as large as
draught horses, averaging between and . On the European continent, the need to carry more armour against mounted enemies such as the
Lombards and
Frisians led to the
Franks developing heavier, bigger horses. As the amount of armour and equipment increased in the later Middle Ages, the height of the horses increased; some late medieval horse skeletons were of horses over .
Stallions were often used as destriers due to their natural aggression. However, there may have been some use of
mares by European warriors, and mares, who were quieter and less likely to call out and betray their position to the enemy, were the preferred war horse of the
Moors, who invaded various parts of Southern Europe from 700 AD through the 15th century.
Geldings were used in war by the
Teutonic Knights, and known as "monk horses" ( or ). One advantage was if captured by the enemy, they could not be used to improve local bloodstock, thus maintaining the Knights' superiority in horseflesh.
Uses The heavy cavalry charge, while it could be effective, was not a common occurrence. Battles were rarely fought on land suitable for heavy cavalry. While mounted riders remained effective for initial attacks, by the end of the 14th century, it was common for knights to dismount to fight, while their horses were sent to the rear, kept ready for pursuit.
Pitched battles were avoided if possible, with most offensive
warfare in the early Middle Ages taking the form of
sieges, and in the later Middle Ages as mounted raids called
chevauchées, with lightly armed warriors on swift horses. is a
sport that evolved out of
heavy cavalry practice. The war horse was also seen in
hastiludes – martial war games such as the
joust, which began in the 11th century both as sport and to provide training for battle. Specialised destriers were bred for the purpose, although the expense of keeping, training, and outfitting them kept the majority of the population from owning one. While some historians suggest that the tournament had become a theatrical event by the 15th and 16th centuries, others argue that
jousting continued to help cavalry train for battle until the
Thirty Years' War.
Transition The decline of the armoured knight was probably linked to changing structures of armies and various economic factors, and not obsolescence due to new technologies. However, some historians attribute the demise of the knight to the invention of
gunpowder, or to the
English longbow. Some link the decline to both technologies. Others argue these technologies actually contributed to the development of knights:
plate armour was first developed to resist early medieval
crossbow bolts, and the full harness worn by the early 15th century developed to resist longbow arrows. Professional armies emphasized training, and were paid via contracts, a change from the ransom and pillaging which reimbursed knights in the past. When coupled with the rising costs involved in outfitting and maintaining armour and horses, the traditional knightly classes began to abandon their profession. Light horses, or
prickers, were still used for scouting and reconnaissance; they also provided a defensive screen for marching armies. Large teams of draught horses or
oxen pulled the heavy early
cannon. Other horses pulled wagons and carried supplies for the armies.
Early modern period During the
early modern period the shift continued from heavy cavalry and the armoured knight to unarmoured
light cavalry, including
Hussars and
Chasseurs à cheval. Light cavalry facilitated better communication, using fast, agile horses to move quickly across battlefields. The ratio of footmen to horsemen also increased over the period as infantry weapons improved and footmen became more mobile and versatile, particularly once the musket
bayonet replaced the more cumbersome pike. During the
Elizabethan era, mounted units included
cuirassiers, heavily armoured and equipped with lances; light cavalry, who wore mail and bore light lances and pistols; and "
petronels", who carried an early
carbine. As heavy cavalry use declined armour was increasingly abandoned and
dragoons, whose horses were rarely used in combat, became more common:
mounted infantry provided reconnaissance, escort and security. However, many generals still used the heavy mounted charge, from the late 17th century and early 18th century, where sword-wielding wedge-formation shock troops penetrated enemy lines, to the early 19th century, where armoured heavy cuirassiers were employed. (
light cavalry) to the left and
cuirassier (
Heavy cavalry) to the right, at the
battle of Friedland. Light cavalry continued to play a major role, particularly after the
Seven Years' War when Hussars started to play a larger part in battles. Though some leaders preferred tall horses for their mounted troops this was as much for prestige as for increased shock ability and many troops used more typical horses, averaging 15 hands. Cavalry tactics altered with fewer mounted charges, more reliance on drilled maneuvers at the
trot, and use of firearms once within range. Ever-more elaborate movements, such as wheeling and
caracole, were developed to facilitate the use of firearms from horseback. These tactics were not greatly successful in battle since
pikemen protected by
musketeers could deny cavalry room to manoeuvre. However the advanced
equestrianism required survives into the modern world as
dressage. While restricted, cavalry was not rendered obsolete. As infantry formations developed in tactics and skills, artillery became essential to break formations; in turn, cavalry was required to both combat enemy artillery, which was susceptible to cavalry while deploying, and to charge enemy infantry formations broken by artillery fire. Thus, successful warfare depended in a balance of the three arms: cavalry, artillery and infantry. As regimental structures developed many units selected horses of uniform type and some, such as the
Royal Scots Greys, even specified colour. Trumpeters often rode distinctive horses so they stood out. Regional armies developed type preferences, such as British
hunters,
Hanoverians in central Europe, and
steppe ponies of the
Cossacks, but once in the field, the lack of supplies typical of wartime meant that horses of all types were used. Since horses were such a vital component of most armies in early modern Europe, many instituted
state stud farms to breed horses for the military. However, in wartime, supply rarely matched the demand, resulting in some cavalry troops fighting on foot.
19th century with his Generals" by
Ludwig Elsholtz. This painting shows light cavalry horses which come into use as officer's mounts in 18th- and 19th-century Europe. In the 19th century distinctions between heavy and light cavalry became less significant; by the end of the
Peninsular War, heavy cavalry were performing the scouting and outpost duties previously undertaken by light cavalry, and by the end of the 19th century the roles had effectively merged. Most armies at the time preferred cavalry horses to stand and weigh , although
cuirassiers frequently had heavier horses. Lighter horses were used for scouting and raiding. Cavalry horses were generally obtained at 5 years of age and were in service from 10 to 12 years, barring loss. However losses of 30–40% were common during a campaign due to conditions of the march as well as enemy action. Mares and
geldings were preferred over less-easily managed stallions. During the
French Revolutionary Wars and the
Napoleonic Wars the cavalry's main offensive role was as shock troops. In defence cavalry were used to attack and harass the enemy's infantry flanks as they advanced. Cavalry were frequently used prior to an infantry assault, to force an infantry line to break and reform into formations vulnerable to infantry or artillery. Infantry frequently followed behind in order to secure any ground won or the cavalry could be used to break up enemy lines following a successful infantry action. Mounted charges were carefully managed. A charge's maximum speed was 20 km/h; moving faster resulted in a break in formation and fatigued horses. Charges occurred across clear rising ground, and were effective against infantry both on the march and when deployed in a
line or
column. A foot
battalion formed in line was vulnerable to cavalry, and could be broken or destroyed by a well-formed charge. Traditional cavalry functions altered by the end of the 19th century. Many cavalry units transferred in title and role to "mounted rifles": troops trained to fight on foot, but retaining mounts for rapid deployment, as well as for patrols, scouting, communications, and defensive screening. These troops differed from
mounted infantry, who used horses for transport but did not perform the old cavalry roles of reconnaissance and support. ==Sub-Saharan Africa==