Azerbaijan in the High Middle Ages

In the 11th century, the Seljuk dynasty of the Oghuz Turkic origin, which emerged in Central Asia, crossed the Araz River while marching to Gilan and then reached Arran. In 1048, the Seljuk dynasty, together with the Azerbaijani feudal lords, defeated the Christian bloc (Byzantine and Christian states of the South Caucasus). When the Seljuk ruler Toghrul Beg came to Azerbaijan and Arran to assert his authority, Rawwadid ruler Vahsudan in 1054, and then in 1062 his son and successor Mamlan II was forced to accept the rule of Toghrul Beg in Tebriz. After Rawwadid Vahsudan, Togrul Bey came to Ganja and Abulasvar Shavur accepted his rule in 1054. After the death of Toghrul, Alp Arslan and his vizier Nizam ul-Mulk visited Ganja during the reign of Fazl Muhammad II, who came to power after Abulasvar Shavur. In return for Alp Arslan's promised expedition to the Alans, he demands 1,000 camels, 50 horses, finely decorated robes, and a mysterious “garden” (bostān) that had trees of gold and blossoms of precious stones weighing 100,000 meṯqāls, however, the march does not take place because of winter.In 1075, Alp Arslan annexed the last of the Shaddadid territories. A cadet branch of Shaddadids continued to rule in Ani and Tbilisi as vassals of the Seljuq Empire until 1175 when Malik-Shah I deposed Fadl III. In 1085, Fadl III instigated a revolt and gained possession of Ganja. Malik-Shah launched a campaign in 1086 and removed Fadl from power again. A collateral line of Shaddadids, through Manuchihr, continued to rule in Ani. Referring to the work of Minorsky, Azerbaijani historian Sara Ashurbeyli states that in 1066–067, during the reign of Shah Fariborz b. Sallār (1063–1096), ruler of Shirvanshahs, Seljuk Turks headed by commander Qarategin made great marches to Shamakhi and Baku, and then Shah I Fariburz accepted to be dependent on the Seljuks by paying 40,000 dinars a year. The absence of the sultan's name on the coins minted during the reign of his son Akhsitan I indicates that the Seljuk state was already weakened and the Shirvanshahs were independent. == Management ==

During the Seljuk rule, emirs were given "igta" lands in exchange for military service. It was one of the lands given by the sultans in Aran, Shirvan and Derbent as "igta". Various taxes were collected from the population, such as ushr (Usura), jizya and tribute taxes, as well as the expense of gun, and the expense of wine. == Atabegs of Azerbaijan (1137–1225) ==

The meaning of the word Atabeg, Atabek, or Atabey is a heritable title of nobility of Turkic Origin indicating a governor of a nation or province, who was subordinate to a monarch and charged with raising the crown prince.It is a combination of two Turkish words – “ata”-father and “bey”-lord, leader.They were known as “Great Atabaks” (atābakān-e aʿẓam) of Sultan of Iraqi Seljuks and controlled the sultans from 1160 to 1181. The state's power base was centered around Nakhchivan and would focus on Georgia. It expanded to Arran and took control of from Baylagan to Shamkir. He made himself virtually independent ruler of what is the modern-day Republic of Azerbaijan by 1146. His marriage to the Mumine Khatun enabled him to intervene in the dynasty dispute between the Seljuk sultans of Iraq, which began after Masud's death in 1152. Eldiguz, in alliance with Ahmadili atabeg (Ahmadilis) Arslan Aba, waged war against Sultan Muhammad II and maintained this alliance until 1156. Eldeniz had married the widow of the Seljuq ruler Toghrïl II and proclaimed Great Atabeg (guardian) of his stepson, Arslanshah in 1161 and became the main protector of the Sultan's government. He obtained Arran amongst others, and turned numerous local rulers into his vassals. Eldeniz appointed his eldest son Muhammad Jahan Pahlavan as the sultan's emir-hajib and his second son Gizil Arslan as the supreme commander of the sultan's army. In 1161, during the reign of King George, Georgian troops captured the city of Ani ruled by Shaddadids, and then attacked the city of Ganja in the territory of Arran. In 1163, Eldeniz defeated Georgian troops and Shaddadids became a vassal of Eldeniz about 10 years. Campaigns against Georgians continued in 1174–1175. After the death of Shamsaddin Eldaniz in Nakhchivan in 1175, his son Muhammad Jahan Pahlavan succeeded him. Muhammad Jahan Pahlavan (1175–1186) Pahlavan transferred the capital from Nakhchivan to Hamadan in western Iran and made his younger brother, Qizil Arslan Uthman, the ruler of the political entity. In 1174, Qizil Arslan captured Tabriz, which subsequently became his capital. According to Ravandi, during the ten years of Atabeg Jahan Pahlavan's rule, the state was not subjected to any foreign aggression. “During his rule, Georgians made peace with him and accepted his demands”. After a while, Atabeg established friendly relations with Khwarazm Shah Tekish (1172–1200). During his reign, Caliph al-Mustadi and Caliph al-Nasir were unable to interfere in the internal affairs of the state. Muhammad Jahan Pahlavan entrusted the management of Arran to his son Nusrat al-Din Abu Bakr and made Qizil Arslan his governor. The Mausoleum of Yusif ibn Kuseyir was built in 1161–1162 and was decorated with geometric patterns of baked brick in Karabaglar village of Nakchivan city, the capital of the Atabegs state. Momine Khatun Mausoleum was built in the west part of Nakhchivan in 1186. Mausoleum was erected on the grave of Shams ad-Din Eldiguz’s wife Momine Khatun, and its construction was finished by Mahammad Jahan Pahlavan. It is the only monumentthat has survived. There are four circular medallions on the perpendicular arrows (diameter 1.5 m) in the interior of the dome's brick rows. The ornaments made of the mix of gypsum and clay, consist of Kufi-style compositions. The essence of all the compositions is the word "Allah". Omar, Osman, Ali words intersect with each other, forming 6, 8 and 10 pointed stars and surround the word “Allah”. Gulistan Mausoleum, built of red sandstone near Julfa. This building is 12-sided and covered with rich and intricate, but delicate geometric ornaments. The Gulustan mausoleum is one of the remarkable architectural monuments of the early 13th century, which demonstrates the genetic commonality of the tombs in Azerbaijan and Anatolia. Literature Khagani (1120–1199), one of the poets born in the cities of Azerbaijan in the XII century, lived in Shirvan, in the palace of Shirvanshahs and composed a Divan consist of qasidas. He had moved from Shamakhi to Tabriz, became acquainted with Qizil Arslan and composed poems appreciating the latter. Nizami Ganjavi (1141–1209) born in Ganja, wrote works dedicated to the Seljuk, Atabegs and Shirvanshah rulers. Nizami's main poetical work, for which he is best known, is a set of five long narrative poems known as the Khamsa or Panj Ganj. Makhzan-ol-Asrâr (The Treasury or Storehouse of Mysteries, 1163) was dedicated to Fakhr al-Din Bahramshah, the ruler of Erzinjan; Khosrow o Shirin (Khosrow and Shirin, 1177–1180) was dedicated to the Seljuk Sultan Toghril II, the Atabek Muhammad ibn Eldiguz Jahan Pahlavan and his brother Qizil Arslan. Nezami composed his romance Leyli o Majnun (Layla and Majnun, 1192) at the request of the Shirvanshah Akhsatan. Eskandar-Nâmeh (The Book of Alexander, 1196–1202) was dedicated to Nusrat al-Din Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad, Atabegs of Azerbaijan, and Malik Izzaddin, the ruler of Mosul. Haft Peykar (The Seven Beauties 1197) was dedicated to Aladdin Korpe Arslan, the ruler of Maragha from the Ahmadilis dynasty. Mahsati Ganjavi, born in Ganja (1089–1159), was a composer of philosophical and love quatrains (rubaiyat), glorifying the joy of living and the fullness of love. The most complete collection of her quatrains are founded in the Nozhat al-Majales. Approximately 60 quatrains of her are found in the Nozhat al-Majales. == Mongol invasions of Azerbaijan ==

The Mongol invasions and conquests of Azerbaijan took place during the 13th and 14th centuries and involved large-scale raids. The Mongol invasions of Azerbaijan resulted in the incorporation of the territories of Azerbaijan into the newly established Hulagu state. After Mongolians defeated some 10,000 Georgians commanded by King George IV "Lasha" of Georgia in the fall of 1220, they returned to Arran. They spent the winter in the Mughan steppe and kept their captured treasures in the swampy area between Barda and Beylagan. Thinking that the Mongols would stay in Arran until the Spring, the Georgians began gathering an army, asking for help from Malik Ashraf of Akhlat and Uzbek, the Atabag of Azerbaijan. Subotai and Jebe received reinforcements from Genghis Khan and recruited local Turkish and Kurdish forces under the command of Akush, a disloyal underling of Atabag Uzbek. Subutai and Jebe then marched towards Tbilisi. Close to Tbilisi the Mongols attacked a Georgian force. The Georgians managed to defeat Akush's Turkmen but were slaughtered by the Mongol rearguard. This took them through the Caucasus into Alania and the South Russian steppes where the Mongols routed the Rus’-Kipchak armies at the Battle of the Kalka River (1223). Ibn al-Athir described the Mongol invasions of Azerbaijan as follows: The second invasion of the Mongolians to Azerbaijan is connected with the name of Chormagan Noyon- a military commander of Genghis Khan in the 1230s. Khwarazmshah retreated to Ganja. The Mongols followed him and captured Arran. Jalal ad-Din took refuge in the Mayyafarikin mountains and there in August of that year he was killed. Mongolians entered the Mugan Plain in 1233. In 1234, they moved forward to the Araxes River toward Ganja, and in 1235, they captured Ganja and burnt down the city. During 1244–1255, Arghun Agha was nominated as a civil governor and head of finances in the Mongol-controlled area of Khorasan, Irak-Ajem, Azerbaijan, Shirvan, Kerman, Georgia, and that part of Hindistan. He destroyed the Nizari Ismaili state and the Abbasid Caliphate in 1256 and 1258 respectively. In 1258, Hulagu proclaimed himself Ilkhan (subordinate khan). The state established in the areas of modern Iran, Azerbaijan, Turkey, and parts of modern Iraq, Syria, Armenia, Georgia, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Pakistan, was an attempt to repair of the damage of the previous Mongol invasions. In March/April, he nominated his brother Öljaitü as his successor, as he had no son his own. After the death of Abu Sa’id, the Chobanids dynasty ruled over Azerbaijan, Arrān, and parts of Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, and west central Persia from 1335 to 1357, until the death of Malek Ashraf. In 1364 Shaykh Uways Jalayir campaigned against the Shirvan Shah Kai-Ka’us, but a revolt begun by the governor of Baghdad, Khwaja Mirjan, forced him to return to reassert his authority. In 1366 Shaykh Uways Jalayir marched against the Kara Koyunlu, defeating their leader, Bairam Khwaja, at the battle of Mush. Later, he defeated the Shirvan Shah, who had attacked Tabriz twice in the meantime. After the death of Shirvanshah Hushang in 1382, Ibrahim I was selected to be the ruler of Shirvanshahs. In 1386, Ibrahim recognized Timur as his suzerain. Once his grandfathers were rulers of Darband. For that reason, his successors were known as Darbandis (1382–1538). When Timur arrived to Caucasus in 1394, Ibrahim gave him gifts and riches as presents in order to maintain good relations with him. However, one of these gifts were eight slaves, which Timur did not see as enough—when he asked Ibrahim why he had only given eight slaves, Ibrahim replied: “I am myself the ninth”. This made Timur glad, who due to the kindness of Ibrahim gave him much land and promised to protect him. In the midst of Timur's absence, Sultan Ahmad had to deal with an invasion by Tokhtamysh, Khan of the Golden Horde. At the end of 1385 Tokhtamysh entered from Darband to Shirvan and reached Tabriz. After invasion of Tabriz, Tokhtamysh's troops invaded Maragha, Marand and Nakhchivan, either. == Reign of Kara Koyunlu in Azerbaijan ==

Kara Koyunlu or Qara Qoyunlu were a Muslim Turkoman monarchy that ruled over the territory comprising present-day Azerbaijan and other parts of Caucasus from about 1375 to 1468. The Kara Koyunlu Turkomans were initially vassals of the Jalairid Sultanate in Baghdad and Tabriz from about 1375, when the leader of their leading tribe ruled over Mosul. However, they rebelled against the Jalairids, and secured their independence from the dynasty with the conquest of Tabriz by Qara Yusuf. After ending the existence of the Jalairis, they began to rule independently in Azerbaijan. Timur completed his Indian campaign and returned to Azerbaijan in 1396. Kara Yusuf, who retreated to Mosul to avoid a sudden raid, was able to take shelter in the Ottomans in 1400. The hosting of Yildirim Bayezid to Kara Yusuf was one of the main reasons Timur launched a campaign against the Ottomans. Although Kara Yusuf wanted to stop the Chagatay people with a little force, he could not succeed. He was able to reach Damascus by escaping into the desert. Kara Yusuf was welcomed by Sheikh Mahmud, the nâib of Damascus. Not long after, Jalairid Sultan Ahmed also came to Damascus. Not wanting to worsen relations with Amir Teymur, Nasir-ad-Din Faraj agreed to capture Gara Yusif and Sultan Ahmed Jalairi, and hand them over to Teymur. Sultan Ahmed Jalayir and Kara Yusuf imprisoned on the order of Nasir-ad-Din Faraj. Together in prison, the two leaders renewed their friendship, making an agreement that Sultan Ahmed Jalayir should keep Baghdad while Qara Yusuf would have Azerbaijan. Ahmad also adopted his son Pirbudag. When Timur died in 1405 Nasir-ad-Din Faraj released them both. However, according to Faruk Sümer, they were released on the orders of rebellious wali of Damascus - Sheykh Mahmud. In 1409 fall, Qara Yusuf entered Tabriz and sent a raiding party to Shirvan, especially Shaki, which was fruitless. Kara Koyunlu defeated Jalayirds in 1432, bringing an end to the dynasty. Further consolidating his rule, Qara Yusuf marched on Shirvan, where Shirvanshah Ibrahim, a loyal Timurid vassal was still reigning. Shirvan's former ally the Karabakh ruler Yar Ahmed Qaramanli sided with Abu Nasr Qara Yusuf, while Ibrahim joined his forces with the ruler of Shaki, Syed Ahmed Orlat and the Georgian king Constantine I, who marched in the head of 2,000 Georgian cavalry to support the Shirvanese allies. A major battle was fought at the village Chalagan in December 1412 and ended in a decisive defeat of the allies. Ibrahim and Constantine fell at the hands of the fierce enemy. The Georgian king, his brother, and 300 Georgian officers were beheaded by the orders of Abu Nasr Qara Yusuf. From around 1447 Jahan Shah was involved in a struggle against the Ak Koyunlu who had always been sworn enemies of the Kara Koyunlu. First of these battles happened when Alvand Mirza rebelled and fled to Jahangir beg, chief of Ak Koyunlu. Jahan Shah demanded his rebellious nephew, but Jahangir refused to hand him over. Jahan Shah invaded Erzincan and sent his commander - Rustem beg to subdue Jahangir. Hopeless Jahangir sent his mother Sara Khatun to Mamluk Egypt while Jahan Shah started to support his half-brother Sheikh Hasan. While Sheikh Hasan was killed by Uzun Hasan, brother of Jahangir; Jahan Shah hasted to offer peace to Ak Koyunlu, in return to accept their submission. Jahangir accepted and also wed his daughter to Mirza Muhammad. Governance The Qara Qoyunlu state organization was based mainly on that of its predecessors, Jalayirids, and the Ilkhanids. Qara Qoyunlu rulers used the title sultan since the enthronement of Pirbudag by Qara Yusuf. Sometimes the title bahadur appeared on the coinage. They also used the titles khan, khagan and padishah. As for the provincial organization, the provinces were governed by şehzade and beys, who had smaller divans in each of the provinces. The governance by military governors (beys) generally passed on from father to son. In the cities there were officials called darugha, that looked after financial and administrative affairs, and also had political powers. == Culture ==

Palace of the Shirvanshahs is a historical 15th-century palace built by the Shirvanshahs and described by UNESCO as "one of the pearls of Azerbaijan's architecture". It is located in the Inner City of Baku. The complex contains the main building of the palace (the 1420s), Divankhana (the 1450s), the burial-vaults – (1435), the shah's mosque with a minaret (1441), Seyid Yahya Bakuvi's mausoleum (the 1450s) and the remnants of the Keyguba mosque. It is the biggest monument of the Shirvan-Apsheron branch of the Azerbaijani architecture. Shirvanshah's palace mausoleum is a part of Palace of the Shirvanshahs complex. The mausoleum is one of the three buildings located in courtyard of the complex, the others being Shirvanshah's palace mosque and Shirvanshah's palace bath house. == See also ==