After the First Fitna, the Muslims had to restart the conquest of the Maghreb from the beginning. Even in nearby Cyrenaica, their former
Luwata Berber allies withdrew their allegiance. In 660 Shurayk ibn Sumayy al-Muradi brought these tribes back under submission. In 661 these tribes moved west towards Tripoli and again reneged,
Uqba ibn Nafi campaigned against them, reaffirming their allegiance. In 662 he took
Ghadames. In 663 he and Shurayk took
Labda, then Uqba returned to the
Fezzan and took
Waddan. After the death of Amr ibn al-Aas in 664, Muawiyah took more direct control over Egypt and the Maghrebi Campaign. To this end, he established a new garrison at bordering the
Western Desert on the western edge of the
delta, this was to serve as an advance base for the campaigns into the Maghreb, appointing
Muawiyah ibn Hudayj as commander of its garrison. In 665 (or 667) Ibn Hudayj led 10,000 men in a new major expedition deep into
Ifriqiya (The two earlier campaigns which the sources mention probably didn't happen due to the First Fitna and the lack of details on those campaigns). Like the 647 campaign, many major figures of the age were part of the army: Abdallah ibn al-Zubayr, Abdallah ibn Umar,
Abdalmalik ibn Marwan and others. Following the path Abdallah ibn Sa'd had taken into Byzacena, ibn Hudayj established an encampment at Qammuniya, near to the future site of
Qayrawan. Ibn al-Zubayr campaigned on the eastern coast, defeating Exarch Nicephorus at
Hadrumetum (
Sousse) and capturing the city. While Abdalmalik b. Marwan campaigned to the northwest, besieging Byzantine forces at
Cululis, a strategic fortress controlling mountain passes into the interior. Having dominated most of Byzacena, Ibn Hudayj personally led the whole army north, deep into
Zeugitana, past Carthage to the northernmost city of all Africa:
Hippo Diarrhytos (Bizerte), some 180 km north of Qayrawan, occupying the strategic port. Despite these major triumphs, Muawiyah ibn Hudayj made no effort to render his conquests permanent. Instead he abandoned the entire region and returned to Egypt. This is particularly puzzling as Byzantine control was very weak at that time due to the new tax levies imposed by Constans on the North Africans. Thus, Ibn Hudayj's campaign was just a raid, like that of Abdallah ibn Sa'd two decades prior. Perhaps related to this campaign, was the 666/7 raid of
Ruwayfi ibn Thabit and
Fadala ibn Ubayd on
Gigthis, the isle of
Djerba and even
Olbia (Sardinia) via Tripoli - now emerging as a centre for Muslim naval forces. There also seems to have been a raid against
Sicily around the same time, showing the increasing reach of the Muslim navy. Meanwhile, Uqba ibn Nafi was campaigning in
Sirte, Fezzan - taking ancient
Germa - and in the
Djerid. However, these victories further emphasized the vulnerability of North Africa and the weakness of the Byzantines on land and sea. They also seem to have played a major role in the assassination of
Constans II, who failed to defend Africa, despite being in nearby Syracuse. On another point, it also increased the wealth and prestige of the
Marwanid family, not only due to Abdalmalik's participation but also because Marwan ibn al-Hakam had authorized the expedition on behalf of Muawiyah. (also known as the Mosque of Uqba) - the oldest and most important mosque in North Africa, - in
Kairouan,
Tunisia, 670 AD.|leftIn 669, Caliph Muawiyah appointed the veteran Uqba ibn Nafi to head 10,000 troops in a new campaign to the west. Accompanied by
Busr ibn Abi Artat, Shurayk ibn Summayy and
Zuhayr ibn Qays, as well as some Berbers. Due to the withdrawal of many Byzantine troops from the Africa to put down the rebellion of
Mizizios, Uqba was able to easily occupy all Byzacena without incident, beginning the foundation of Qayrawan as a permanent base of operations in the Maghreb, in contrast to the ephemeral policies of his predecessors. For the next 5 years, he devoted his attentions to the building of this new
garrison town, without launching expeditions against the Byzantines or Berbers. The lack of campaigning seems to have been the cause of Muawiyah removing Uqba, placing the Maghreb under the control of
Maslama ibn Mukhallad - the governor of Egypt - who appointed his non-Arab (perhaps a
Copt,
Greek or Berber)
freedman Abu'l Muhajir Dinar as governor of
Ifriqiya. Abul Muhajir disliked Qayrawan, and a few kilometres to the north founded a new city named Takirwan, which means 'place of assembly' in Berber.The choice of the Berber sounding name was part of Abul Muhajir's new policy of rapprochement of the Berbers. He was able to skillfully win over many Berber tribes in the
Gafsa region and begin converting them to Islam. Recognising the numerical inferiority of the Muslims compared to the vastness of the Maghreb, he sought to enlist the Berbers en masse to assuage such concerns.He then conquered
Cape Bon and much of Zeugitana. In 678 he unsuccessfully besieged Carthage, but was able to get a treaty out of them, probably recognising the Muslim control of Byzacena in exchange for Muslim withdrawal from Zeugitana. This treaty allowed him to focus his attentions on the west, pushing deep into Numidia. For the next 2 years he established himself at
Tlemcen, or more likely a placed called Lamis around the northern foothills of the
Aures (perhaps
Lambaesis,
Lamasba or
Ksar Bellezma). Here he campaigned to
Milev - dangerously close to the Numidian capital of
Constantine - and continued his rapprochement policy with the Berbers, as he had done previously in
Gafsa. This bore fruit in a major way through the conversion of
Kasila, the most powerful Berber leader in the Maghreb, based at Tlemcen or more probably
Tubna. Kasila then accompanied Abul Muhajir back to Takirwan.
Uqba's Campaign Soon after Abul Muhajir's victories, his benefactor Maslama ibn Mukhallad died, and the new Caliph
Yazid Ibn Muawiya reinstated Uqba. Accompanied by some 5–10,000 troops and 25 of the
Sahaba, Uqba returned to the Maghreb in 682. Upon his arrival, he arrested Abul Muhajir and Kasila, moved the capital back to Qayrawan - leaving
Zuhayr ibn Qays as its governor - and took a more uncompromising and forceful approach with the Berbers in contrast to the policies of Abul Muhajir. Then he embarked on his grand campaign to the west, with around 15,000 troops and both Kasila and Abul Muhajir in chains. This wasn't a mere heroic and dashing raid as it has been remembered. Instead, it was intended to destroy the manpower, resources and reserves of the Byzantine interior, since Muslim control over Byzacena and Zeugitana was insecure as long as the Byzantine positions in Numidia weren't neutralised, and only then could the final campaigns against Carthage and the coasts begin. Beyond that, the Byzantines had strongholds and troops much further south and west into Algeria than previously realised; far from the coasts, deep into
Sitifensis. So the Muslims faced a much greater obstacle, which partly explains why the conquest of the Maghreb took so long. From Qayrawan, Uqba likely marched west through the Kasserine Gap to ancient city of
Ammaedera, then past Byzantine command post of
Meskiana to the stronghold of
Bagai overlooking the Numidian plains. Here the Muslims met stiff resistance and were unable to take the city. Abandoning the siege Uqba continued west avoiding sieges of formidable strongholds such as those around Constantine. Instead focusing on a more sweeping strategy through the open country outmanoeuvring his foes, maximizing the impact of his limited men and resources. The difficult terrain of the Algerian coast - where the Byzantine navy could intervene - was avoided, and nothing is mentioned about the ancient cities of
Cuicul,
Caesarea,
Setif and
Tipasa in any source. After Bagai he raided Lamis(perhaps
Lambaesis,
Lamasba or
Ksar Bellezma) until reaching the westernmost Byzantine fortress: Zabi Justiniana (Bechilga,
M'sila). Here he broke the back of Byzantine resistance, vanquishing their last strength. Retreating to their fortresses, they avoided more open battle and ceded the entire countryside to the Muslims. After the decisive victory, Uqba continued his plunge westwards to
Tahert defeating yet another force and then further to
Tangier where he met
Count Julian who redirected him southwards deeper into Morocco. At the ancient city of
Volubilis (abandoned by the Romans in 285) he defeated some local Berbers, before venturing southwards to the
Atlas mountains, to regions the Romans had never conquered. He seems to have first pursued some fleeing Berbers all the way to the
Draa before doubling back and besieging the city of
Aghmat near
Marrakesh. He then traversed the Atlas once more and campaigning throughout the
Sus, until his tireless 2,000 km advance was checked at
Agadir by the
Atlantic Ocean. Spurring his horse into its endless waves, he proclaimed:
يا رب لولا أن البحر منعني لمضيت في البلاد إلى مسالك القرنين مدافعًا عن دينك مقاتلًا من كفر بك O lord, if my course were not stopped by this sea, I would still go on, like Dhul Qarnayn, defending your faith and fighting those who worship other gods than thee. However, some modern scholars doubt if Uqba ever reached as far west as Tangier, let alone Sus al-Adna and Sus al-Aqsa due to the immense distance away from Qayrawan. Yet, as
Gibbon puts it, this Mahometan Alexander, who sighed for new worlds, was unable to preserve his recent conquests. At some point during the western advance,
Kusaila had managed to get free, his mistreatment by Uqba led him to rescind his allegiance to the Muslims, now making common cause with the Byzantines. (However, the nomads of the
Zenata south of Tlemcen and the Aures desert fringe, remained allied to Uqba). Kusaila used the strategic Byzantine stronghold of
Tobna, former seat of the
Comes of Africa, as his base of operations. Instead of attempting a risky pursuit, he allowed the Muslims to continue their advance far to the west, preferring to lie in wait and prepare an ambush for Uqba's return journey. Until at
Tahuda he and his Byzantine allies surprised the returning Uqba and at the
Battle of Vescera the entire Muslim army was annihilated. The nearby city of
Sidi Okba houses Uqba's tomb and serves as a memorial to the event.
Battle of Mamma In wake of the disaster at Tahuda combined with the outbreak of the
Second Fitna, Uqba's deputy at Qayrawan, Zuhayr ibn Qays, was obliged to abandon the city and retreat all the way to Cyrenaica. Allowing Kusaila to enter Qayrawan unopposed, there he made treaties with the Berber Muslims and the few Arabs who stayed behind. For the next few years he ruled most of Byzacena and Numidia, perhaps with some tacit Byzantine approval, though he was no puppet. In late 684 the Umayyads regained Egypt from the
Zubayrids, and a few years later in 688/9
Abdalmalik ibn Marwan had consolidated enough to send Zuhayr ibn Qays to defeat Kusaila and retake Qayrawan. Upon hearing of the approach of Zuhayr and his army of 4,000 Arabs and 2,000 Berbers, Kusaila abandoned the unwalled Qayrawan in favour of a more strategic position in the mountains. At the
Battle of Mamma (in the Aures or perhaps at
Henchir-Ed-Douamès) the Muslims defeated and slew Kusaila. Regarding this,
Hugh Kennedy states:
As so often, it is difficult to see reasons for the military success of the Muslim forces over what was probably a much larger army, well acquainted with the terrain. We can only observe that, once again, when it came to crucial battles, the Muslim forces proved superior. Zuhayr took
Sicca Veneria,
Thysdrus, and
Laribus, and then proceeded to chase the remnants of Kusaila's forces as far west as the
Moulouya River on the border of
Mauretania Tingitana. By this, the last vestiges of effective resistance in the west had been quashed and the region was ripe for conquest. Though without a navy, the Byzantine coastal cities remained outside his grasp. Soon after such victories, Zuhayr had to suddenly abandon the region, due to a Byzantine fleet landing in Cyrenaica in 690. On his westerly advance against Kusaila, Zuhayr hadn't left enough troops behind to garrison Cyrenaica, enabling the Byzantines to invade the province. Now for the first time since its conquest by Amr ibn al-Aas half a century earlier, Barqa had fallen out of Muslim control. This posed an existential threat to the Muslim position in Ifriqiya, as the Byzantines could cut the line of communication with Egypt, and potentially even threaten Egypt itself. In the event, Zuhayr was defeated and slain by the Byzantines in Cyrenaica, meanwhile the Second Fitna was still raging, denying any immediate action by the Caliphate. As such, this was the low point of the Muslim conquest in the Maghreb. However, the Byzantines lacked the will or resources to follow through on their victory, and the final campaign was soon to begin. ==Third Invasion==