Nianfo

Mindfulness of the Buddha (buddhānusmṛti) is a practice found in the Early Buddhist Texts as part of the ten recollections. The practice appears in Pali Canon suttas like Anguttara Nikaya (AN) 11.11, 11.12, and 1.296 as a method that can lead to samādhi and ultimately nirvana. Agamas like EA III, 1 (Taisho Vol. II, p. 554a7-b9) also discuss the practice as a method of focusing the mind on the Buddha and his qualities which can lead directly to attaining nirvana. Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism Indian Mahāyāna teachings developed the early Buddhist practices of buddhānusmṛti in more visionary directions. Some scholars like Andrew Skilton argue that Kashmiri Sarvāstivādin meditation masters influenced the development of more complex Mahayana meditations on the Buddhas. A key feature of Mahāyāna buddhānusmṛti is that it was not restricted to Shakyamuni Buddha but could also be directed at other Buddhas, like Akṣobhya, Maitreya, and Amitābha Buddha. Groups of Mahāyāna sutras were composed based on these figures. With translations of these sūtras as well as the spread of Buddhism out of India, the practice of Mahāyāna buddhānusmṛti rapidly spread to Central Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia. Hajime Nakamura writes that in the Indian Pure Land sūtras, Mindfulness of the Buddha (buddhānusmṛti) is the essential practice and consists of meditating upon Amitābha Buddha. Further, the practice of dedicating one's merit attained through such practices toward rebirth in a Buddha's pure buddha-field () became widespread as early as the 2nd century CE, with the Buddha Amitābha rising in prominence as a Buddha who had created a perfectly pure and easily accessible buddha-field. Key Mahāyāna texts for East Asian Buddhism The earliest dated sutra translated into Chinese that describes Amitabha-focused nianfo (buddhānusmṛti) is the Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra (1st century BCE), which is thought to have originated in ancient kingdom of Gandhāra. This sutra does not enumerate any vows of Amitābha or the qualities of his pure land, Sukhāvatī, but rather briefly describes the repetition of the name of Amitābha as a means to enter his realm through meditation. Among the most frequently cited examples in East Asian Pure Land Buddhism is found in the Sutra on the Buddha of Immeasurable Life where Amitabha's vows are enumerated. The 18th, 19th and 20th vows state:18. If, when I attain buddhahood, sentient beings in the lands of the ten directions who sincerely and joyfully entrust themselves to me, desire to be born in my land, and think of me even ten times should not be born there, may I not attain perfect enlightenment. Excluded, however, are those who commit the five grave offenses and abuse the Right Dharma. 19. If, when I attain buddhahood, sentient beings in the lands of the ten directions who awaken aspiration for enlightenment, do various meritorious deeds, and sincerely desire to be born in my land, should not, at their death, see me appear before them surrounded by a multitude of sages, may I not attain perfect enlightenment. 20. If, when I attain buddhahood, sentient beings in the lands of the ten directions who, having heard my Name, concentrate their thoughts on my land, plant roots of virtue, and sincerely transfer their merits toward my land with a desire to be born there should not eventually fulfill their aspiration, may I not attain perfect enlightenment.And this passage in the Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra (Taisho no. 366): Lastly, one passage from the Sutra on the Contemplation of Amitāyus (Taishō 365) was also particularly influential on East Asian Pure Land authors (Amitāyus is an alternative name for Amitābha). This passage says that even sentient beings who commit the "five grave offenses" (which include killing one's parents) and other very evil acts can be reborn in the Pure Land (though in the lowest stage of birth). In the Sanskrit editions, phrases related to nianfo in the Sukhāvatīvyūha include "producing a thought directed toward a vision of Amitabha" (cittam utpādayanty amitābhasya...darśanāya) and "hearing the name" (buddhanāmaṣravaṇena). The shorter sutra speaks of hearing the name and "keeping it in mind" (manasikara). The Sanskrit edition of the longer sutra also speaks of "remembering [the Buddha] with a faithful mind" (prasannacittā māmanusmareyuḥ) and "obtaining even as little as one moment of a serene thought about the Tathagata" (''hīnādhimuktikā bhaviṣyanti ye 'ntaśaekacittaprasādamapi tasmiṃstathāgate''). There are a few other influential sources on East Asian nianfo practice, including the Teaching of Manjusri 700 Line Prajñāpāramitā Sutra (Mañjuśrīparivartāparaparyāyā Saptaśatikāprajñāpāramitā), Vasubandhu's Discourse on the Pure Land (), the "Chapter on Purifying a Buddha-land" in the Dà zhìdù lùn (Great Prajñāpāramitā Commentary), and the "easy path" chapter in Nagarjuna's *Dasabhumikavibhāsā (, T.1521). These various Mahayana sources were particularly important for the East Asian Pure Land Buddhist tradition, which is the set of beliefs and practices centered around the idea that all beings, even the most ordinary people, can attain birth in the Pure Land through the power of Amitābha Buddha. This tradition centered its practices on the nianfo. These sources were also influential on other Chinese traditions that practiced nianfo, including Chan and Tiantai. == Nianfo in China ==

In Chinese translations of Buddhist Mahayana sources, the most common character for smṛti ("mindfulness", "recollection") became (niàn), and thus recollection of the Buddha became niànfó. The character 念 generally means to think, recall, contemplate, mentally focus, or even "long for". But the term is ambiguous and can also mean to recite texts aloud so as to memorize them as well as meaning "a moment in time". In China, nianfo became an important "dharma-gate" (fǎmén ), taught by numerous traditions and Buddhist masters. Perhaps one of the earliest well-known Chinese practitioners of nianfo was Huiyuan, who practiced mindfulness of the Buddha as taught in the Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra so as to have a vision of Buddha Amitābha. Nianfo was also taught by the founder of Tiantai Buddhism, patriarch Zhiyi (538–597). In his Mohe Zhiguan, Zhiyi taught a practice he named Constantly Walking Samadhi (chángxíng sānmèi ), in which one walks in a ritualized manner while visualizing Amitabha and reciting his name for up to 90 days. The Chinese Pure Land tradition reciting "the nianfo" (Amitabha's name) and Amitabha Early Chinese Pure Land figures like Tanluan (476–542) and Daochuo (562–645) promoted nianfo as a way to achieve rebirth in the Pure Land of Amitabha. Tanluan taught that, through nianfo, which included visualizing Amitabha and reciting his name with faith, one could tune into the "other power" of this Buddha, which could purify one's mind and take one to the Pure Land of Sukhavati. Tanluan also taught that one could practice nianfo simply by holding Amitabha's name in one's mind as an image of the sound. He argued that Amitabha's name contained the full reality of that Buddha and that one could contemplate the Buddha just by contemplating the name. As such, the only truly effective way to attain Buddhahood is to practice nianfo and rely on the "other power" (tālì ) of Amitabha. Like Tanluan, Daochuo recommended a simple practice of meditating on Amitabha's name (rather than focusing on complex visualizations). He also introduced the practice of counting one's nianfo contemplations with the beads of a mala. For Shandao, the nianfo of "orally holding Amitāyus's name" (kǒuchēng Mítuó mínghào ) was Pure Land Buddhism's main practice. All other practices were merely auxiliary. These auxiliaries include visualization of Amitabha and his Pure Land, worshiping Amitabha, praising him, and making offerings to him. Over time, the term niànfó came to refer to Amitabha's name itself. While Shandao taught these auxiliary practices, he also held that reciting Amitabha's name ten times was sufficient for rebirth in Sukhavati. Nevertheless, the Pure Land tradition considered constant lifelong practice useful, since one could improve one's stage of rebirth in the Pure Land and thus attain Buddhahood faster once there (while those who did no practice would likely be born in the lower level). Shandao also practiced visualizations taught in the Amitayus Contemplation Sutra and taught this method of Buddha recollection to his disciples. The recitation of the nianfo was particularly critical for the dying and quickly became a major deathbed practice in Chinese Buddhism. For example, in The Meritorious Dharma Gate of the Samādhi Involving Contemplation of the Ocean-like Marks of the Buddha Amitābha (), Shandao prescribes a specific set of rituals and practices (including visualization techniques) to help dying Buddhist devotees avoid bad rebirths and attain rebirth in the Pure Land. He also taught of the many dangers that could hinder a dying aspirant's rebirth in the Pure Land in his Correct Mindfulness for Rebirth at the Moment of Death (). These sources reflect a traditional Chinese concern about various more complicated requirements for rebirth in the Pure Land, which include but are not limited to the recitation of Amitābha's name on one's deathbed. The well-known form of the nianfo (na-mo a-mi-tuo fo) was standardized by a later Pure Land patriarch, Fazhao (died c. 820). Fazhao also promoted the melodic "five stage nianfo" () method, and taught nianfo at the imperial court. This method involves five different ways of chanting the nianfo phrase: in a slow sonorous way, slow but rising in pitch, moderate tempo, gradually accelerating in tempo, and chanting only Amituofo very rapidly. Later Chinese Pure Land patriarchs were known for their syncretism of nianfo recitation with Chan meditation. The "dual path of Chan and Pure Land cultivation" is an important feature of Chinese Buddhism, which often combines nianfo with Chan Buddhist meditation. Figures considered Pure Land patriarchs who also combined nianfo with Chan include Yongming Yanshou (904–975) and Yunqi Zhuhong (1535–1615). Zhuhong was a learned figure who argued that the goal of Pure Land nianfo practice was "nianfo samādhi" (Ch.: nianfo sanmei), a "single, unperturbed mind" focused on Amitabha Buddha in which one realizes that the Buddha is one's own pure and empty mind. According to Zhuhong:To contemplate the Buddha (nianfo) is to contemplate the mind (nianxin). Birth there (in the Pure Land) does not entail birth away from here. Mind, Buddha, and sentient beings are all of one substance; the middle stream (nonduality) does not abide on the two banks (this world and the Pure Land). Tiantai authors also wrote works on Pure land nianfo practice like Zongxiao’s (1151–1214) Lèbāng wénlèi (Anthology of the Land of Bliss, T.1969A). The Chuanfa Baoji (; "Annals of the Transmission of the Dharma Jewel"; Taisho no. 2838, c. 713), one of the earliest Chan histories, shows the practice of nianfo was widespread in the early Chan generation of Hongren, Faru and Datong. A later development in the dual Pure Land-Chan nianfo cultivation was the so-called "nianfo gong’an" which consisted of orally reciting nianfo as normal while pausing from time to time to ask oneself "Who is performing nianfo?". This practice first appears during the time of Zhiche (?–1310) who is said to have attained an awakening by this method. Nianfo and related practices for rebirth in the Pure Land of Amitabha was also practiced in Chinese esoteric Buddhism, though this tradition focused on the use of mantras and dharanis associated with Amitabha instead of the classic non-esoteric nianfo phrase "Namo Amitabha". Chinese translators of esoteric materials translated and composed various texts on Amitabha practice which made use of mantras and dharanis to achieve similar results as Mahayana nianfo practice (such as rebirth in the Pure Land). They include figures like Zhi Qian (c. 222–252, translated Taisho Tripitaka no. 1011, and T. 1356), Dharmakṣema (397–439, translated T. 157), Kālayaśas (c. 420–479, translated T. 1161), Śrīmitra (T. 1331), Vajrabodhi (671–741, T. 932), and Amoghavajra (705–774). Modern Chinese Buddhism Nianfo remains a central practice of Chinese Buddhism. Master Yinguang (1861–1941) was particularly influential in the modern revival of Pure Land nianfo practice, drawing tens of thousands of students and leading a new Pure Land movement. Modern Chan figures like Nan Huai-Chin also made use of the nianfo as a meditation tool and as a way to attain samādhi. Modern Chan masters like Xuyun (1840?–1959) also taught nianfo it as a kind of Chan huatou practice. == In Korea ==

Korean Buddhism traditionally sees the practice of nianfo as part of "Three Gates" (K.: sammun) doctrine. This teaching places nianfo alongside Seon (Zen) meditation and doctrinal study as necessary parts of a holistic Buddhist practice. The three are considered to be mutually reinforcing elements of Buddhist cultivation, like three legs on a tripod. The practice of yeombul (nianfo) was adopted from Chinese Buddhist sources during the Unified Silla (668–935). Wŏnhyo (617–686) was the most influential figure in promoting this practice among the wider populace. Wŏnhyo's nianfo method draws on numerous sources including Zhiyi and Tanluan. Later Pure Land authors who write on nianfo practice all rely on Wŏnhyo's teachings. According to Wŏnhyo's Muryangsu-gyŏng chongyo (, Doctrinal Essentials of the Sūtra on the Visualization of Immeasurable Life), the most important element of the practice of nianfo is to recite the name with bodhicitta and with a sincere repentant mind (K: chisim, ). Another important Korean exponent of nianfo practice is Uisang (625–702), who wrote a commentary on the Amitabha sutra, the ''Amit'a-gyŏng ŭigi ( The meaning of the Amituo jing''). == Nembutsu in Japan ==

, from the ''Illustrated Biography of the Monk Ippen and His Disciple Ta'a (Yugyō Shōnin engi-e'') Chinese teachings on the practice of nianfo (in Japanese: nembutsu) were adopted into Japanese Buddhism. One of the earliest accounts of Japanese nembutsu practice is found in the works of Chikō (709–770 or 781), a monk of the Sanron (East Asian Madhyamaka) school. Chikō's commentary on Vasubandhu's Pure Land Treatise divides nembutsu into two main categories: meditative and vocal. The meditative nembutsu involved either visualizing the form of Amitabha, including imagining all his physical marks one by one, or one could merely contemplate the wisdom and compassion of Amitabha. The vocal nembutsu was considered an easier practice for those who lacked concentration. Both practices were considered to be able to lead to absorption (samādhi). The most well known of these figures was Kūya (903–972), who wandered throughout the provinces preaching on nembutsu practice. The Pure Land sects school By the end of the 12th century, distinctive sects focused exclusively on the practice of nembutsu as a verbal recitation for the purposes of being reborn in the Pure Land arose. These new Pure Land (jodo) schools were part of the New Kamakura Buddhism. They include Honen's (1133–1212) Jōdo-shū, Shinran's (1173–1263) Jodo Shinshu and smaller sects like Ryōnin's (1072–1132) Yūzū Nembutsu and Ippen's Ji-shu. The new Pure Land schools often held that the world had entered the era of the decline of the Dharma (mappō) and that only the Pure land practice of reciting the nembutsu was useful for attaining liberation (after rebirth in the Pure Land). Ryōnin's Yūzū Nembutsu sect was the first Japanese Pure Land sect which focused on nembutsu practice. Ryōnin's understanding of the nembutsu was influenced by the Huayan concept of perfect interfusion and the interconnectness of all phenomena. He held that the chanting of the nembutsu influenced all people and all things. He began a register where people would sign up and commit to a certain number of nembutsu recitations per day, the idea being that all people in the register would receive the collective benefit of these combined recitations. This practice became popular, and even the Japanese emperor entered the register. This view led to various reactions among other Buddhist schools at the time and Hōnen's sect was fiercely attacked at times. The Tendai school argued that this teaching disparaged other Buddhist practices and managed to have the exclusive practice of nembutsu banned by the government for a period of time (c. 1207). The ban was lifted in 1211. In spite of these setbacks, Hōnen's new Jōdo (Pure Land) school thrived. As such, while Hōnen emphasized the oral nembutsu, he did still promote the practice of other forms of nembutsu (like visualization) as well as Shandao's auxiliary Pure land practices (including precepts, dedicating merit to birth, recitation of sutras, etc.). Like Tanluan, Ippen held that the Buddha was present in the very name of Amitabha, as his Dharmakaya was all pervasive. Reciting the name thus allowed one to realize the non-duality between oneself and Amitabha. Perhaps the earliest monk to call himself a "Nenbutsu-shū (Nianfo school)" monk, was the Shingon monk Eikan of Zenrinji, who emphasized nembutsu practice as a way to attain rebirth in Sukhavati. He even argued that nembutsu was the highest practice, even on the level of all other esoteric practices. Another important Shingon author on nembutsu was Chingai, who writes of the "essence of the pure [land] teachings," in his Ketsujō ōjō shū (, T. 2684). He promoted the nembutsu along with the mantra of Amitabha and the Mantra of Light. Later, the Shingon monk Kakuban (1095–1143) popularized an esoteric nembutsu teaching influenced by Pure Land and Shingon esotericism. His Mitsugon-in temple was a major site for the practice of nembutsu which became popular among hijiri (itinerant ascetics). Kakuban's Amida Hishaku (Esoteric Meaning of Amida) is an important exposition of esoteric Pure Land thought on nembutsu practice. Dōhan's four layered esoteric understanding of the nembutsu as follows: • At level one, the literal level of meaning, there is the conventional truth of Amitabha as a being that created the Pure land as a place of refuge for all beings who say his name. • At this level of meaning, Amitabha is but one aspect of the cosmic Mahāvairocana Buddha, the Dharmakaya.. • At the third level, Amitabha is the compassionate activity of ultimate reality itself and the universal doorwat to liberation for all beings. • At the deepest most secret level, Amitabha is the true nature which is active within the body-mind of all living beings. Dōhan goes as far as equating the nembutsu with one's heart-mind (shin), one's life, and breath. As such, whether one is awake or asleep, one is already engaged in the secret nembutsu through merely breathing. Thus, the esoteric nembutsu is not limited to actively chanting the name. Indeed, since he sees the nembutsu as all pervasive, Dōhan rejects the concept of "exclusive" recitation practice, and promotes a more diverse regime of Buddhist practices. Esoteric nembutsu teachings also influenced Seizan branch of Jodo-shu, founded by Johen (1166–1224) and Shōkū (, 1177–1247). Johen was originally a Shingon priest at Eikan-dō who had affinities with Pure Land practice. Later he converted to Jōdo-shū after reading Honen's works. This branch of Jodo-shu has been seen by modern scholars as being the source of the Pure Land tract Attaining the Settled Mind (Anjin ketsujō shō). This text has been influential in the Jodo Shinshu tradition. Later developments The new Kamakura period Pure Land schools were extremely popular and influential. Other schools responded with various critiques of their nembutsu practice and with their own similar devotional teachings. One critic was the Kegon monk Myōe, who wrote two critical treatises against Honen's views. His central critique was that exclusive nembutsu practice lacked central Mahayana foundations, like bodhicitta (the mind aimed at awakening for the sake of all beings). Nevertheless, Myōe was also a promoter of simply reciting the Mantra of Light as a way to attain rebirth in Sukhavati. Similarly, the Yogacara figure Jōkei (1155–1213) responded to the widespread popularity of the nembutsu practice by promoting a similar series of simple devotional practices which relied on the other power of a Buddha, though he preferred to focus on Maitreya or Shakyamuni Buddha instead of Amitabha as the main object of devotion. Later in Japanese history, the nembutsu would also become popular in Japanese Zen, influenced by the rise of the Ōbaku lineage, introduced by Ingen (1592–1673), who followed a Chinese Linji tradition which promoted Chan-Pure Land dual cultivation. Nenbutsu practice was also taught in the other schools of Japanese Zen at certain times in its history, though this was not without controversy. For example, the Rinzai master Ungo Kiyō (1582–1659), was famous for having taught nembutsu. He wrote a work on the practice, called the Ōjōyōka. This caused a controversy among his Rinzai peers, who even threatened him with expulsion. Since nembutsu practice had been condemned by the great Rinzai systematizer Hakuin Ekaku (1686–1769), this controversy cut to the core the Rinzai tradition's identity. == In Vietnamese Buddhism ==

, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Vietnamese Buddhism is an eclectic tradition which draws from all strains of Chinese Buddhism, including Chan and Pure Land. As such, the practice of "Niệm Phật" (the Vietnamese term for nianfo) is a common feature of modern Vietnamese Buddhist practice. The phrase "Nam mô A-di-đà Phật" or "Nam mô A Mi Đà" is often chanted in Vietnamese temples by monks and laypeople alike. The nianfo method is often combined with Thiền meditation (i.e. zazen). Indeed, according to Thích Thiên-Ân, "at present the popular method of practice is meditation during recitation and recitation during meditation – meditation and recitation being one and the same for Vietnamese Buddhists". This Chan Nianfo dual practice is known as "union of Zen and Pure-Land recitation". One popular teacher of Vietnamese Pure Land nienfo practice was Thich Thien Tam. Some of his teachings have been translated into English, including the book Buddhism of Wisdom & Faith (1991). Thích Quảng Đức, a South Vietnamese Mahāyāna monk who famously burned himself to death in an act of protest against the anti-Buddhist policies of the Catholic President Ngô Đình Diệm, said the nianfo as his last words immediately before death. He sat in the lotus position, rotated a string of wooden prayer beads, and recited the words "Nam mô A-di-đà Phật" before striking the match and dropping it on himself, continuing to recite Amitabha's name as he burned. == Nianfo methods ==

There are numerous ways of practicing nianfo in East Asian Buddhism. The most popular method in East Asian Pure Land Buddhism remains the simple oral recitation of the phrase Namo Amituo-fo (Jp: Namo Amida Bu, Namo Amitabha Buddha) or just the name itself "Amitofo" (Amitabha Buddha). The Japanese Pure Land sects of Jōdo-shū and tend to exclusively focus on the oral recitation of the nianfo. Another widespread method is the mentally "holding the name" (Ch.: chi ming), in which one mentally contemplates the Buddha by repeating the name with one's inner voice. One Chinese master who taught nianfo along with visualization was Yìnguāng (1861–1940). According to Thích Thiện Tâm, there are four major "types" of nianfo practice: (1) the practice of Pure Land nianfo alongside Chan/Zen practice; (2) practicing nianfo alongside the recitation of Mahayana sutras; (3) practicing nianfo alongside esoteric practices, such as mantra and dharani; (4) the exclusive practice of nianfo (either with visualization, or as oral recitation only). Furthermore, Charles Jones discusses two main approaches to the various ways of practicing nianfo, the "medicine cabinet" approach and the "graded path" or "mārga" approach. The first approach sees the various nianfo methods as different skillful means, each of which can be useful for different individuals with different needs. It is the job of a Pure Land teacher to help a student select the method best suited to them. The medicine cabinet approach is exemplified by the following passage from Elder Suddhisukha's Taming the Monkey Mind: "The cultivator is not expected to follow all the methods presented in this volume, but rather to pick and choose according to his situation, level and circumstances. If a given method does not bring results quickly or is not suitable, the reader can switch to another." The second approach organizes various nianfo methods into a graded curriculum, beginning with the easiest method. Tiānrú Wéizé's (1286?–1354) Questions about Pure Land (T.1972) meanwhile provides two main categories: visualization (), and recollection and invocation (). Nianfo variations and techniques include the following: One can decide ahead of time to commit to a certain number of recitations per day and track these with the mala. This can help in eliminating laziness. Patriarchs like Ouyi aimed at 30 to 100 thousand repetitions a day. An alternative method is to move one bead for a certain number of recitations, such as five or ten rapid recitations. • Chanting with a loud voice, to overcome sleepiness or torpor. • Quiet recitation for when one is tired or anxious. • "Reflecting the name" in which one carefully listens to the sounds as one recites the nianfo. This is influenced by the Shurangama sutra's teaching for meditating on the hearing faculty. • "Vajra recitation" (Ch.: jin'gang chifa) "in which one moves the lips without emitting any sound", useful for practicing in public. • Silent recitation without moving the lips at all. • Linked with the breath, one mentally recites nianfo with each in breath and out breath. One may also visualize the breath as light going in and out of one's nose. • "Continuously linked recitation" in which one "recites softly, each word following the one immediately before, each phrase closely following the previous phrase". • Reciting nianfo in various postures, such as while walking, while circumambulating a Buddha statue, or while standing or lying down. • Practicing nianfo while looking at a Buddha image. • Bowing recitation, in which one bows to the Buddha and recites, either one recitation per vow, or constant recitation as we bow again and again. According to Thích Thiện Tâm "its benefits are very great, because the practitioner engages in recitation with his body, speech and mind." • Reciting nianfo while in the middle of daily activities. • The Chan influenced "Pure Land kōan" method in which one recites nianfo and pauses to ask "Who is it that performs nianfo?". Similarly, the first visualization of the Amitayus Contemplation Sutra is to visualize a golden shining setting sun. • "Lotus blossom method" in which one visualizes a shining lotus blossom while reciting the name. • Enlightened recitation, in which one "turns the light around" towards our true nature as one recites the nianfo. This is considered to be for those of highest capacity. • Esoteric nembutsu (J: himitsu nenbutsu) practices, which are particularly taught in Japanese esoteric Buddhism (Mikkyō) and draw on the teachings of figures like Kakuban. Group nianfo depicting a chanting session Nianfo practice can be done alone or in a group. Individuals may track their recitations using a mala, sometimes seeking to achieve a specific number of recitations per day. Group chanting sessions may be accompanied by a wooden fish or other percussion instruments. Special halls are often set aside for chanting, called nianfo halls. Chinese temples and nianfo halls will often hold nianfo retreats attended by monastic and lay. They may last for several days and may include chanting, walking nianfo, and quiet sitting nianfo meditation. Graded nianfo paths One of the earliest of these graded path models is found in Chengguan's commentary on the Gandavyuha Sutra's passage on twenty one kinds of nianfo. This commentary contains the following schema of nianfo practice (or ascending levels of spiritual growth in relation to nianfo): • Nianfo focused on an external Buddha and an external Pure land • Mind-only nianfo in which one is aware that mind is Buddha • The cessation of both the mind and the object of visualization in emptiness • The non-obstruction of mind and its object based on mutual interpenetration and the interfusion of principle (li) and phenomena (shih) • The inexhaustible identity of oneself with all things This method was further modified by Guifeng Zongmi, a Huayan and Chan master who also wrote on nianfo practice. • "Contemplation of the name" (), which is based on The Perfection of Wisdom Sutra preached by Mañjuśrī (T.232) and involves selecting a Buddha, facing their direction, and focusing on their name until one has a vision of all buddhas (past, present, and future). As noted by Jones, while later Chinese Pure Land thinkers interpreted this practice as oral recitation, it seems that for Zongmi this entailed mentally "holding" () the sound of the name. Yunqi Zhuhong taught "holding the name" in various ways including: audible recitation of the name (), silent contemplation of the name (mòchí 默持), or contemplation accompanied by barely audible whispering of the name (). • "Contemplating an image" (), which is based on the Dà bǎojī jīng (, Great Jewel Collection Sutra, T.310) which according to Jones "says that in contemplating an image of a buddha, one realizes the non-duality of the image with the buddha." • "Contemplating the visualization" (), "means to contemplate the major and minor marks of a buddha's body without the aid of a physical image. One may select one feature upon which to focus or contemplate them all simultaneously." The sources for this nianfo practice are the Sutra on the samadhi-ocean of the contemplation of the Buddha (T.643) and Sutra on the samadhi of seated meditation (T.614). • "Contemplating the true mark" (), "one contemplates the buddha's dharma body, which is also the contemplation of one's own true self and the true nature of all phenomena. This is also based on The Perfection of Wisdom Sutra Preached by Mañjuśrī, which describes the true nature of the buddha as "unproduced and unextinguished, neither going nor coming, without name and without feature. That alone is called 'buddha'." Furthermore, when practiced well, Thích Thiện Tâm states this practice will lead us to see Amitabha and the Pure land in this life and even awaken us to the Original Mind. • Contemplation of the individual marks – This involves visualizing all 32 marks of a great man (mahāpuruṣa lakṣaṇa) along with some extra secondary marks, beginning with the ushnisha at the top of the Buddha's head. This is repeated in forward and reverse order sixteen times until one is able to visualize Amitabha's form perfectly. • Contemplation of the comprehensive mark – this involves visualizing Amitabha as a gigantic shining gold being sitting on a huge lotus dais, or visualizing him as encompassing all three buddha-bodies (trikaya). Genshin considered this the most profound method. • Mixed and abbreviated contemplations – these are easier and simpler methods for those who cannot do the others. They include visualizing the curled white tuft of hair between Amitabha's eyebrows radiating salvific light, as well as simple recitation of the nenbutsu while imagining oneself taking refuge in Amitabha and being taken to the Pure Land. Mental attitude An important element of nianfo practice in East Asian Buddhism is the question of what kind of mental attitude is needed (if any) when reciting the name of the Buddha (or meditating on him). As such, the Pure Land masters like Shandao argued that reciting the nianfo with a faithful mind was important. Shandao writes that the ideal attitude is the Three Minds (), which are also outlined in the Amitayus Contemplation Sutra as follows: "first, a sincere mind; second, a deep mind; and third, a mind that seeks birth there [the Pure Land] by transferring one's merit." Shandao comments on this passage by saying that the "sincere mind" is based on worshiping, praising, glorifying and contemplating the Buddha, while the "deep mind" is true faith in Amitabha and his pure land without any doubt. Finally, the third mind is the intention to transfer all of one's meritorious roots towards birth in the pure land. True faith was also emphasized by Japanese authors like Shinran, who saw complete entrustment (Jp: shinjin) as the one central and essential element of nianfo practice. Nianfo will not work without it. Furthermore, for Shinran, true faith is a gift of grace by Amitabha, it cannot be generated by oneself. Bodhicitta (the mind which aims at awakening for the benefit of all beings) is also another important attitude which is mentioned by Indian and Asian sources on nianfo. Figures like Tanluan, Wonhyo and Jixing Chewu also stress the importance of bodhicitta for the successful practice of nianfo. Similarly, Vietnamese master Thích Thiện Tâm writes that developing bodhicitta is a "crucial step" for those who practice nianfo. He also quotes the Avatamsaka sutra which states: "to neglect bodhicitta when practicing good deeds is the action of demons". A related element is the taking of vows, particularly the vow to be reborn in the Pure Land. Figures like Ouyi Zhixu and Thích Thiện Tâm argue that vows is one of the essential elements of nianfo practice, along with faith and practice itself. According to Ouyi Zhixu, faith and vows are necessary for birth in the Pure Land (without them one might fail to attain rebirth there). Meanwhile, the depth of one's practice will determine the stage of rebirth (i.e. which of the nine lotus grades one will attain) in the Pure Land. Some figures like Ippen disagreed with the view that any specific mental attitude was needed for rebirth in the Pure Land however. They argued that the power of the Buddha worked no matter what one's mental attitude was since the presence of Amitabha's name in one's mind purified the mind by itself, like the mythical wish fulfilling mani jewel. == Phrases used in recitation ==

Sanskrit The following phrase appears in the opening of the extant Sanskrit Infinite Life Sutra, as well as the later composition, the Contemplation Sutra (only extant in Chinese): :namo'mitābhāya buddhāya (IPA: ) The apostrophe and omission of the first "A" in "Amitābha" comes from normal Sanskrit sandhi sound change rule, and implies that the initial A in Amitabha is omitted due to the previous vowel o. A rendering without sandhi might be: :Namo Amitābhāya Buddhāya A literal English translation would be "Bow to Amitābha Buddha" or "Homage to Amitābha Buddha". Several scholars have also argued that the Pure Land sutras might have originally been written in Gandhari. Jan Nattier gives the possible Gandhari name for Amitābha as Amidā'a. Thus, a possible Gandhari Prakrit reconstruction of the phrase is:Namo Amidā'a Budha Nianfo in East Asia reciting the nembutsu, each of the Chinese characters represented by a small figure of Amida emerging from his mouth As the practice of nianfo spread from India to various other regions, the original pronunciation changed to fit various local languages. } In China, the practice of nianfo was codified with the establishment of the separate Pure Land school of Buddhism. The most common form of this is the six syllable nianfo; some shorten it into Ēmítuófó/Āmítuófó. In the Japanese Jodo Shinshu sect, it is often shortened to na man da bu. Variations and alternate names Alternate Sanskrit phrases In an East Asian Buddhist context the term nianfo or nembutsu generally refers to the recitation of Amitabha Buddha's name. Technically speaking however, the term literally means "Buddha Recollection" and hence can apply to the recitation of any Buddha's name, such as reciting "Namo Shakyamuni Buddha" or "Namo Mahavairocana Buddha" etc. The Lotus Sutra and other texts mention the generic: namo buddhāya. In these cases, the term nianfo is often prefigured by the name of that Buddha. For example, the Japanese term Shaka Nembutsu refers to the recitation of Namo Shakyamuni Buddha. Some Mahayana sutras, like the Ajitasena sutra and the Medicine Guru Sutra, indicate that "hearing" and "preserving" the name of other Buddhas like Shakyamuni and Medicine Guru, will also have the same effect as nianfo on the name of Amitabha (i.e. rebirth in Sukhavati). Furthermore, nianfo can also refer to devotional phrases used for bodhisattvas as well, such as: Namo'valokiteśvarāya, Namo Guanshiyin Pusa, Namo Mañjuśriye, etc. While almost unknown, and unused outside of the original Sanskrit, Indic texts provide a recitation of Amitābha's alternate aspect of Amitāyus as: : Namo'mitāyuṣe buddhāya (sans sandhi: Namo Amitāyuṣe Buddhāya) Furthermore, the Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra contains twelve or more epithets of Amitābha Buddha. Vasubandhu's Treatise on Birth in the Pure Land (Wang-sheng-lun) references these "lights of Amitābha". There are various sets of these names. The names in the Sanskrit edition of the Amitayus sutra are: • Tathāgato 'mitābha – The Tathāgata Immeasurable Light • Amitaprabha – Immeasurable Radiance • Amitaprabhāso – Unbounded Radiance • Asamāptaprabha – Unending Radiance • Asaṃgataprabha – Inconceivable Radiance • Prabhāśikhotsṛṣṭaprabha – [The one with a] splendorous crest which emits radiance • Sādivyamaṇiprabha – [The one with] Divine Jewel Splendor • Apratihataraśmirāgaprabha – [The one with] light rays that are unobstructed and radiant • Rājanīyaprabha – King Radiance • Premaṇīyaprabha – Lovable Radiance • Pramodanīyaprabha – Joyful Radiance • Saṃgamanīyaprabha – Harmonious Radiance • Upoṣaṇīyaprabha – Worshipful Radiance • Nibandhanīyaprabha – Unbreakable Radiance • Ativīryaprabha – Supremely vigorous radiance • Atulyaprabha – Incomparable Radiance • Abhibhūyanarendrāmūnnayendraprabha – Surpassing the splendor of kings and gods • Śrāntasaṃcayendusūryajihmīkaraṇaprabha – Surpassing the splendor of the moon and stars Esoteric phrases discovered at the Mogao Caves, Dunhuang In Esoteric Buddhist traditions, there are various mantras associated with Amitabha and their recitation would be considered a type of Buddha mindfulness or nianfo. Indian esoteric sources, including Buddhist tantras and dharani collections like Atikūṭa's (, mid-seventh century) Dhāraṇīsaṃgraha (T. 901) contain numerous esoteric phrases, dhāraṇīs, spells, and mudras focused on Amitabha and his Pure Land. Shingon Buddhism makes use of the following mantra of Amitabha which is found in The Nine Grades of Rebirth Amita Samādhi Dhāraṇī Sūtra (, Taisho no. 933):oṃ amṛta teje hara hūṃThis mantra was promoted by Shingon writers on the nembutsu, like Kakuban. In Tibetan Buddhism, the most popular mantra is: oṃ amideva hrīḥAnother mantra which is found in various Indian sources including the Sarvadurgatipariśodhanatantra is: One version of this dharani is:namo amitābhāya tathāgatāya tadyathā amṛtadbhave amṛtasaṃbhave amṛtavikrānte amṛtavikrānta gāmine gagana kīrtakare svāhāAnother popular dharani associated with Amitabha is the Aparamitāyus Dhāraṇī (, Wú Liàng Shòu Jīng; T. 370, with alternate versions at T. 936, and T. 937). This dharani was widely translated and used in Mahayana esoteric circles as well as in Pure Land Buddhism. It is also found in the Tibetan Canon in multiple versions (Tohoku no. 674, 673, 675) under various names like Āryāparimitāyurjñānanāmamahā­yānasūtra. These two dharanis are part of the Ten Small Mantras, an important set of mantras and dharanis in Chinese Buddhism which is often part of morning services at temples. East Asian Nianfo variants According to the Jikaku daishiden 慈覚大師伝, when the Tendai master Ennin was passing away ,he recited the following nenbutsu:Kimyō chorai Mida shugaku 帰命頂礼弥陀修学 (I take refuge in and venerate Amida who possesses the knowledge of all modes of existence)In the Jodo Shinshu tradition in Japan, variant forms of the nianfo have been used since its inception. The founder, Shinran, used a nine-character in the Shoshinge and the Sanamidabutsuge () hymns: Further, the "restorer" of Jodo Shinshu, Rennyo, frequently inscribed the nianfo for followers using a 10-character : The latter was originally popularized by Shinran's descendant (and Rennyo's ancestor), Kakunyo, but its use was greatly expanded by Rennyo. In the Shingon school, another alternative way of saying the nembutsu was to use just the simple name of A-MI-TA, often written in the Siddham script. This three syllable invokation was subjected to extensive esoteric interpretation by various Shingon Pure Land masters like Dōhan and Kakuban. Dōhan also relies on the longer NAMO-A-MI-TA-BU recitation. == See also ==