Foundation The specific date, circumstances, and motivations concerning Carthage's founding are unknown. Most surviving accounts of the city's origins come from Latin and Greek literature, which are generally legendary in nature and reflect Greco-Roman culture values. The eldest known Greco-Roman foundation myth of Carthage was that the city was founded by Tyrians, led by two brothers called Azoros (Phoenician:
ʿAzar) and Karkhedon. Another, and more widely known, Greco-Roman account tells that King Pygmalion (Phoenician:
Pumayyatan) murdered Sycharbas (Phoenician:
Zakarbaʿl), the high priest of Melqart and also the husband of his sister Elissa (Phoenician:
ʿAlišat), known to the Greeks as
Dido. Elissa and her allies then fled his reign and established Carthage, which flourished under her rule as queen. Several scholars have identified Baʿli-maanzer, the king of Tyre who paid tribute to Shalmaneser III in 841 BC, with Balazeros (
Baʿl-ʿazar), who is regarded as Dido's grandfather. The
Nora Stone, found on Sardinia and dated to the 9th century BC, has been interpreted by
Frank Moore Cross as naming Pygmalion as the king of the general who was using the stone to record his victory over the local populace. The Roman historian
Justin, writing in the second century AD, provides an account of the city's founding based on the earlier work of
Trogus. Princess Dido is the daughter of King
Belus II of Tyre, who upon his death bequeaths the throne jointly to her and her brother Pygmalion. After cheating his sister out of her share of political power, Pygmalion murders her husband
Acerbas (Phoenician: Zakarbaal), also known as Sychaeus, the High Priest of
Melqart, whose wealth and power he covets. Before her tyrannical brother can take her late husband's wealth, Dido immediately flees with her followers to establish a new city abroad. Upon landing in North Africa, she is greeted by the local Berber chieftain,
Iarbas (also called Hiarbas) who promises to cede as much land as could be covered by a single ox hide. With her characteristic cleverness, Dido cuts the hide into very thin strips and lays them end to end until they encircle the entire
hill of Byrsa. While digging to set the foundation of their new settlement, the Tyrians discover the head of an ox, an omen that the city would be wealthy "but laborious and always enslaved". In response they move the site of the city elsewhere, where the head of a horse is found, which in Phoenician culture is a symbol of courage and conquest. The horse foretells where Dido's new city will rise, becoming the emblem of Carthage, derived from the Phoenician
Qart-Hadasht, meaning "New City". , by Claude-Augustin Cayot (1667–1722)|alt=|leftThe city's wealth and prosperity attracts both Phoenicians from nearby
Utica and the indigenous Libyans, whose king Iarbas now seeks Dido's hand in marriage. Threatened with war should she refuse, and also loyal to the memory of her deceased husband, the queen orders a funeral pyre to be built, where she commits suicide by stabbing herself with a sword. She is thereafter worshiped as a goddess by the people of Carthage, who are described as brave in battle but prone to the "cruel religious ceremony" of human sacrifice, even of children, whenever they seek divine relief from troubles of any kind. Virgil's epic poem the
Aeneid—written over a century after the Third Punic War—tells the mythical story of the
Trojan hero
Aeneas and his journey towards founding Rome, inextricably tying together the founding myths, and ultimate fates, of both Rome and Carthage. Its introduction begins by mentioning "an ancient city" that many readers likely assumed was Rome or Troy, but goes on to describe it as a place "held by colonists from Tyre, opposite Italy ... a city of great wealth and ruthless in the pursuit of war. Its name was Carthage, and Juno is said to have loved it more than any other place ... But she had heard that there was rising from the blood of Troy a race of men who in days to come would overthrow this Tyrian citadel ... [and] sack the land of Libya." Aeneas sees the smoke from the pyre as he sails away, and though he does not know the fate of Dido, he identifies it as a bad omen. Ultimately, his descendants go on to found the
Roman Kingdom, the predecessor of the Roman Empire. Like Justin, Virgil's story essentially conveys Rome's attitude towards Carthage, as exemplified by
Cato the Elder's famous utterance, "
Carthago delenda est"—"Carthage must be destroyed". In essence, Rome and Carthage were fated for conflict: Aeneas chose Rome over Dido, eliciting her dying curse upon his Roman descendants, and thus providing a mythical, fatalistic backdrop for a century of bitter conflict between Rome and Carthage.
Settlement as Tyrian colony (c. 814 BC) To facilitate their commercial ventures, the Phoenicians established numerous colonies and trading posts along the coasts of the Mediterranean. Organized in fiercely independent city-states, the Phoenicians lacked the numbers or even the desire to expand overseas; most colonies had fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, and only a few, including Carthage, would grow larger. Motives for colonization were usually practical, such as seeking safe harbors for their merchant fleets, maintaining a monopoly on an area's natural resources, satisfying the demand for trade goods, and finding areas where they could trade freely without outside interference. Over time many Phoenicians also sought to escape their
tributary obligations to foreign powers that had subjugated the Phoenician homeland. Another motivating factor was competition with the Greeks, who became a nascent maritime power and began establishing colonies across the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. The first Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean grew up on the two paths to Iberia's mineral wealth: along the northwest African coast and on
Sicily,
Sardinia, and the
Balearic Islands. As the largest and wealthiest city-state among the Phoenicians, Tyre led the way in settling or controlling coastal areas.
Strabo claims that the Tyrians alone founded three hundred colonies on the west African coast; though clearly an exaggeration, many colonies did arise in Tunisia, Morocco, Algeria,
Iberia, and in Libya. They were usually established as trading stations at intervals of about 30 to 50 kilometres along the African coast. By the time they gained a foothold in Africa, the Phoenicians were already present in
Cyprus,
Crete,
Corsica, the Balearic Islands, Sardinia, and Sicily, as well as on the European mainland, in what are today
Genoa and
Marseilles. Foreshadowing the later Sicilian Wars, settlements in Crete and Sicily continually clashed with the Greeks, and Phoenician control over all of Sicily was brief. Nearly all these areas would come under the leadership and protection of Carthage, which eventually founded cities of its own, especially after the decline of Tyre and
Sidon. The site of Carthage was likely chosen by the Tyrians for several reasons. It was located in the central shore of the Gulf of Tunis, which gave it access to the Mediterranean sea while shielding it from the region's infamously violent storms. It was also close to the strategically vital Strait of Sicily, a key bottleneck for maritime trade between the east and west. The terrain proved as invaluable as the geography. The city was built on a hilly, triangular peninsula backed by the Lake of Tunis, which provided abundant supplies of fish and a place for safe harbor. The peninsula was connected to the mainland by a narrow strip of land, which combined with the rough surrounding terrain, made the city easily defensible; a citadel was built on Byrsa, a low hill overlooking the sea. Finally, Carthage would be conduit of two major trade routes: one between the Tyrian colony of Cadiz in southern Spain, which supplied raw materials for manufacturing in Tyre, and the other between North Africa and the northern Mediterranean, namely Sicily, Italy, and Greece.
Independence, expansion and hegemony In contrast to most Phoenician colonies, Carthage grew larger and more quickly thanks to its combination of favorable climate, arable land, and lucrative trade routes. Within just one century of its founding, its population rose to 30,000. Meanwhile, its mother city, which for centuries was the preeminent economic and political center of Phoenician civilization, saw its status begin to wane in the seventh century BC, following a succession of sieges by the
Babylonians. By this time, its Carthaginian colony had become immensely wealthy from its strategic location and extensive trade network. Unlike many other Phoenician city-states and dependencies, Carthage grew prosperous not only from maritime commerce but from its proximity to fertile agricultural land and rich mineral deposits. As the main hub for trade between Africa and the rest of the ancient world, it also provided a myriad of rare and luxurious goods, including terracotta figurines and masks, jewelry, delicately carved ivories, ostrich eggs, and a variety of foods and wine. Certain deities became more prominent in the Carthaginian pantheon than in Phoenicia; into the fifth century BC, the Carthaginians were worshiping Greek deities such as Demeter. These trends most likely precipitated the colony's emergence as an independent polity. Though the specific date and circumstances are unknown, Carthage became independent in the middle of the 6th century BC. It had grown into a fully independent
thalassocracy, embarking its own colonization efforts across the western Mediterranean. It nonetheless maintained amicable cultural, political, and commercial ties with its founding city and the Phoenician homeland; it continued to receive migrants from Tyre, and for a time continued the practice of sending annual tribute to Tyre's temple of Melqart, albeit at irregular intervals. By the sixth century BC, Tyre's power declined further still after its voluntary submission to the Persian king
Cambyses ( BC), which resulted in the incorporation of the Phoenician homeland into the Persian empire. Lacking sufficient naval strength, Cambyses sought Tyrian assistance for his planned conquest of Carthage, which may indicate that the former Tyrian colony had become wealthy enough to warrant a long and difficult expedition. Herodotus claims that the Tyrians refused to cooperate due to their affinity for Carthage, causing the Persian king to abort his campaign. Though it escaped reprisal, Tyre's status as Phoenicia's leading city was significantly circumscribed; its rival, Sidon, subsequently garnered more support from the Persians. However, it too remained subjugated, leading the way for Carthage to fill the vacuum as the leading Phoenician political power.
Formation and characteristics of the empire in the shape of a woman's head,
Kerkouane Archaeological Museum Although the Carthaginians retained the traditional Phoenician affinity for maritime trade and commerce, they were distinguished by their imperial and military ambitions: whereas the Phoenician city-states rarely engaged in territorial conquest, Carthage became an expansionist power, driven by its desire to access new sources of wealth and trade. It is unknown what factors influenced the citizens of Carthage, unlike those of other Phoenician colonies, to create an economic and political hegemony; the nearby city of
Utica was far older and enjoyed the same geographical and political advantages, but never embarked on hegemonic conquest, instead coming under Carthaginian influence. One theory is that
Babylonian and
Persian domination of the Phoenician homeland produced refugees that swelled Carthage's population and transferred the culture, wealth, and traditions of
Tyre to Carthage. The threat to the Phoenician trade monopoly—by
Etruscan and Greek competition in the west, and through foreign subjugation of its homeland in the east—also created the conditions for Carthage to consolidate its power and further its
commercial interests. Another contributing factor may have been domestic politics: while little is known of Carthage's government and leadership prior to the third century BC, the reign of
Mago I ( 550–530), and the political dominance of the
Magonid family in subsequent decades, precipitated Carthage's rise as a dominant power.
Justin states that Mago, who was also general of the army, was the first Carthaginian leader to "[set] in order the military system", which may have entailed the introduction of new military strategies and technologies. He is also credited with initiating, or at least expanding, the practice of recruiting subject peoples and mercenaries, as Carthage's population was too small to secure and defend its scattered colonies.
Libyans,
Iberians,
Sardinians and Corsicans were soon enlisted for the Magonid expansionist campaigns across the region. By the beginning of the fourth century BC, the Carthaginians had become the "superior power" of the
western Mediterranean, and would remain so for roughly the next three centuries. Carthage took control of all nearby Phoenician colonies, including
Hadrumetum,
Utica,
Hippo Diarrhytus and
Kerkouane; subjugated many neighboring
Libyan tribes, and occupied coastal North Africa from
Morocco to
western Libya. It held Sardinia,
Malta, the
Balearic Islands, and the western half of Sicily, where coastal fortresses such as
Motya and
Lilybaeum secured their possessions. The
Iberian Peninsula, which was rich in precious metals, saw some of the largest and most important Carthaginian settlements outside North Africa, though the degree of political influence before the conquest by
Hamilcar Barca (237–228 BC) is disputed. Carthage's growing wealth and power, along with the foreign subjugation of the Phoenician homeland, led to its supplanting of Sidon as the supreme Phoenician city state. Carthage's empire was largely informal and multifaceted, consisting of varying levels of control exercised in equally variable ways. It established new colonies, repopulated and reinforced older ones, formed defensive pacts with other Phoenician city states, and acquired territories directly by conquest. While some Phoenician colonies willingly submitted to Carthage, paying
tribute and giving up their
foreign policy, others in
Iberia and
Sardinia resisted Carthaginian efforts. Whereas other Phoenician cities never exercised actual control of the colonies, the Carthaginians appointed magistrates to directly control their own (a policy that would lead to a number of Iberian towns siding with the Romans during the
Punic Wars). In many other instances, Carthage's hegemony was established through treaties, alliances, tributary obligations, and other such arrangements. It had elements of the
Delian League led by Athens (allies shared funding and manpower for defense), the
Spartan Kingdom (subject peoples serving as serfs for the Punic elite and state) and, to a lesser extent, the
Roman Republic (allies contributing manpower and tribute for Rome's war machine). In 509 BC, Carthage and
Rome signed the first of several
treaties demarcating their respective influence and commercial activities. This is the first textual source demonstrating Carthaginian control over Sicily and Sardinia. The treaty also conveys the extent to which Carthage was, at the very least, on equal terms with Rome, whose influence was limited to parts of central and southern Italy. Carthaginian dominance of the sea reflected not only its Phoenician heritage, but an approach to empire-building that differed greatly from Rome. Carthage emphasized maritime trade over territorial expansion, and accordingly focused its settlements and influence on coastal areas while investing more on its navy. For similar reasons, its ambitions were more commercial than imperial, which is why its empire took the form of a
hegemony based on treaties and political arrangements more than conquest. By contrast, the Romans focused on expanding and consolidating their control over the rest of mainland Italy, and would aim to extend its control well beyond its homeland. These differences would prove key in the conduct and trajectory of the later Punic Wars. By the third century BC, Carthage was the center of a sprawling network of colonies and client states. It controlled more territory than the Roman Republic, and became one of the largest and most prosperous cities in the Mediterranean, with a quarter of a million inhabitants. Carthage did not focus on growing and conquering land, instead, it was found that Carthage was focused on growing trade and protecting trade routes. The trades through Libya were territories and Carthage paid Libyans for access to this land in Cape Bon for agricultural purposes until about 550 BC. In around 508 BC Carthage and Rome signed a treaty to keep their commercial planes separate from each other. Carthage focused on growing their population by taking in Phoenicians colonies and soon began controlling Libyan, African, and Roman colonies. Many Phoenician cities also had to pay or support the Carthaginian troops. Punic troops would defend cities and these cities had few rights.
Conflict with the Greeks (480–265 BC) Unlike the existential conflict of the later Punic Wars with Rome, the conflict between Carthage and the Greeks centered on economic concerns, as each side sought to advance their own commercial interests and influence by controlling key trade routes. For centuries, the Phoenician and Greek city-states had embarked on maritime trade and colonization across the Mediterranean. While the Phoenicians were initially dominant, Greek competition increasingly undermined their monopoly. Both sides had begun establishing colonies, trading posts, and commercial relations in the western Mediterranean roughly contemporaneously, between the ninth and eighth centuries. Phoenician and Greek settlements, the increased presence of both peoples led to mounting tensions and ultimately open conflict, especially in Sicily.
First Sicilian War (480 BC) Carthage's economic successes, buoyed by its vast maritime trade network, led to the development of a powerful navy to protect and secure vital shipping lanes. Its hegemony brought it into increasing conflict with the
Greeks of
Syracuse, who also sought control of the central Mediterranean. Founded in the mid seventh century BC, Syracuse had risen to become one of the wealthiest and most powerful Greek city states, and the preeminent Greek polity in the region. The island of Sicily, lying at Carthage's doorstep, became the main arena on which this conflict played out. From their earliest days, both the Greeks and Phoenicians had been attracted to the large, centrally located island, each establishing a large number of colonies and trading posts along its coasts; battles raged between these settlements for centuries, with neither side ever having total, long-term control over the island. In 480 BC,
Gelo, the
tyrant of
Syracuse, attempted to unite the island under his rule with the backing of other Greek
city-states. Threatened by the potential power of a united Sicily, Carthage intervened militarily, led by King
Hamilcar of the Magonid dynasty. Traditional accounts, including those by
Herodotus and Diodorus, number Hamilcar's army at around 300,000; though this number is almost certainly exaggerated, the Carthaginian force was nevertheless of formidable strength and dauntingly large. While sailing to Sicily, Hamilcar suffered losses due to poor weather. Landing at Panormus (modern-day
Palermo), he spent three days reorganizing his forces and repairing his battered fleet. The Carthaginians marched along the coast to Himera, making camp before
engaging in battle against the forces of Syracuse and its ally
Agrigentum. The Greeks won a decisive victory, inflicting heavy losses on the Carthaginians, including their leader Hamilcar, who was either killed during the battle or committed suicide in shame. As a result, the Carthaginian nobility sued for peace. The conflict proved to be a major turning point for Carthage. Though it would retain some presence in Sicily, most of the island would remain in Greek (and later Roman) hands. The Carthaginians would never again expand their territory or sphere of influence on the island to any meaningful degree, instead turning their attention to securing or increasing their hold in North Africa and Iberia. The death of King Hamilcar and the disastrous conduct of the war also prompted political reforms that established an oligarchic republic. Carthage would henceforth constrain its rulers through assemblies of both nobles and the common people.
Second Sicilian War (410–404 BC) , in southern Italy, during the occupation by
Hannibal (c. 212–209 BC). ΚΛΗ above, ΣΗΡΑΜ/ΒΟΣ below, nude youth on horseback right, placing a
laurel wreath on his horse's head; ΤΑΡΑΣ, Taras riding dolphin left, holding
trident in left hand,
aphlaston in his right hand. By 410 BC, Carthage had recovered from its serious defeats in Sicily. It had conquered much of modern-day
Tunisia and founded new colonies across northern Africa. It also extended its reach well beyond the Mediterranean;
Hanno the Navigator journeyed down the West African coast, and
Himilco the Navigator had explored the European Atlantic coast. Expeditions were also led into
Morocco and
Senegal, as well as the
Atlantic. The same year, the Iberian colonies seceded, cutting off Carthage from a major source of
silver and
copper. The loss of such strategically important mineral wealth, combined with the desire to exercise firmer control over shipping routes, led
Hannibal Mago, grandson of Hamilcar, to make preparations to reclaim Sicily. In 409 BC, Hannibal Mago set out for Sicily with his force. He captured the smaller cities of Selinus (modern
Selinunte) and
Himera—where the Carthaginians had been dealt a humiliating defeat seventy years prior—before returning triumphantly to Carthage with the spoils of war. But the primary enemy, Syracuse, remained untouched and in 405 BC, Hannibal Mago led a second Carthaginian expedition to claim the rest of the island. This time, however, he met with fiercer resistance as well as misfortune. During the
siege of
Agrigentum, Carthaginian forces were ravaged by plague, which claimed Hannibal Mago himself. His successor, Himilco, managed to extend the campaign, capturing the city of
Gela and repeatedly defeating the army of
Dionysius of Syracuse. But he, too, was struck with plague and forced to
sue for peace before returning to Carthage. By 398 BC, Dionysius had regained his strength and broke the peace treaty, striking at the Carthaginian stronghold of
Motya in western Sicily. Himilco responded decisively, leading an expedition that not only reclaimed Motya, but also captured
Messene (present-day Messina). Within a year, the Carthaginians were besieging Syracuse itself, and came close to victory until the plague once again ravaged and reduced their forces. The fighting in Sicily swung in favor of Carthage less than a decade later in 387 BC. After winning a naval battle off the coast of Catania, Himilco laid siege to Syracuse with 50,000 Carthaginians, but yet another epidemic struck down thousands of them. With the enemy assault stalled and weakened, Dionysius then launched a surprise counterattack by land and sea, destroying all the Carthaginian ships while its crews were ashore. At the same time, his ground forces stormed the besiegers' lines and routed them. Himilco and his chief officers abandoned their army and fled Sicily. Once again, the Carthaginians were forced to press for peace. Returning to Carthage in disgrace, Himilco was met with contempt and committed suicide by starving himself. Notwithstanding consistently poor luck and costly reversals, Sicily remained an obsession for Carthage. Over the next fifty years, an uneasy peace reigned, as Carthaginian and Greek forces engaged in constant skirmishes. By 340 BC, Carthage had been pushed entirely into the southwest corner of the island. representation of the
Battle of Himera (480 BC). Painted by
Giuseppe Sciuti in 1873.
Third Sicilian War In 315 BC, Carthage found itself on the defensive in Sicily, as
Agathocles of Syracuse broke the terms of the peace treaty and sought to dominate the entire island. Within four years, he seized
Messene, laid siege to Agrigentum, and invaded the last Carthaginian holdings on the island. Hamilcar, grandson of
Hanno the Great, led the Carthaginian response with great success. Because of Carthage's power over the trade routes, Carthage had a rich and strong navy that was able to lead. Within a year of their arrival, the Carthaginians controlled almost all of Sicily and were besieging Syracuse. In desperation, Agathocles secretly led an expedition of 14,000 men to attack Carthage, forcing Hamilcar and most of his army to return home. Although Agathocles' forces were eventually defeated in 307 BC, he managed to escape back to Sicily and negotiate peace, thus maintaining the status quo and Syracuse as a stronghold of Greek power in Sicily.
Pyrrhic War (280–275 BC) (280–275 BC).|237x237px Carthage was once again drawn into a war in Sicily, this time by
Pyrrhus of Epirus, who challenged both Roman and Carthaginian supremacy over the Mediterranean. The Greek city of
Tarentum, in
southern Italy, had come into conflict with an expansionist Rome, and sought the aid of Pyrrhus. Seeing an opportunity to forge a new empire, Pyrrhus sent an advance guard of 3,000
infantry to Tarentum, under the command of his adviser
Cineas. Meanwhile, he marched the main army across the Greek peninsula and won several victories over the Thessalians and Athenians. After securing the Greek mainland, Pyrrhus rejoined his advance guard in Tarentum to conquer southern Italy, winning a
decisive but costly victory at Asculum. According to Justin, the Carthaginians worried that Pyrrhus might get involved in Sicily; Polybius confirms the existence of a mutual defense pact between Carthage and Rome, ratified shortly after the battle of Asculum. These concerns proved prescient: during the Italian campaign, Pyrrhus received envoys from the Sicilian Greek cities of
Agrigentum,
Leontini, and Syracuse, which offered to submit to his rule if he aided their efforts to eject the Carthaginians from Sicily. Having lost too many men in his conquest of Asculum, Pyrrhus determined that a war with Rome could not be sustained, making Sicily a more enticing prospect. He thus responded to the plea with reinforcements consisting of 20,000-30,000
infantry, 1,500-3,000
cavalry, and 20
war elephants supported by some 200 ships. decorated with
low reliefs, a 3rd-century BC
Italiote cuirass breastplate armor found in a Carthaginian tomb near
Ksour Essef, now in the
Bardo National Museum The ensuing Sicilian campaign lasted three years, during which the Carthaginians suffered several losses and reversals. Pyrrhus overcame the Carthaginian garrison at
Heraclea Minoa and seized Azones, which prompted cities nominally allied to Carthage, such as
Selinus, Halicyae, and
Segesta, to join his side. The Carthaginian stronghold of
Eryx, which had strong natural defenses and a large garrison, held out for a long period of time, but was eventually taken.
Iaetia surrendered without a fight, while Panormus, which had the best harbour in Sicily, succumbed to a siege. The Carthaginians were pushed back to the westernmost portion of the island, holding only
Lilybaeum, which was put under siege. Following these losses, Carthage sued for peace, offering large sums of money and even ships, but Pyrrhus refused unless Carthage renounced its claims to Sicily entirely. The siege of Lilybaeum continued, with the Carthaginians successfully holding out due to the size of their forces, their large quantities of siege weapons, and the rocky terrain. As Pyrrhus' losses were mounting, he set out to build more powerful war engines; however, after two more months of dogged resistance, he abandoned the siege.
Plutarch claimed that the ambitious king of Epirus now had his sights on Carthage itself, and began outfitting an expedition. In preparation for his invasion, he treated the Sicilian Greeks more ruthlessly, even executing two of their rulers on false charges of treason. The subsequent animosity among the Greeks of Sicily drove some to join forces with the Carthaginians, who "took up the war vigorously" upon noticing Pyrrhus' dwindling support. Cassius Dio claimed that Carthage had harboured the exiled Syracusans, and "harassed [Pyrrhus] so severely that he abandoned not only Syracuse but Sicily as well". A renewed Roman offensive also forced him to focus his attention on southern Italy. According to both Plutarch and Appian, while Pyrrhus' army was being transported by ship to mainland Italy, the Carthaginian navy inflicted a devastating blow in the
Battle of the Strait of Messina, sinking or disabling 98 out of 110 ships. Carthage sent additional forces to Sicily, and following Pyrrhus' departure, managed to regain control of their domains on the island. Pyrrhus' campaigns in Italy ultimately proved inconclusive, and he eventually withdrew to Epirus. For the Carthaginians, the war meant a return to the
status quo, as they once again held the western and central regions of Sicily. For the Romans, however, much of
Magna Graecia gradually fell under their
sphere of influence, bringing them closer to complete domination of the Italian peninsula. Rome's success against Pyrrhus solidified its status as a rising power, which paved the way for conflict with Carthage. In what is likely an
apocryphal account, Pyrrhus, upon departing from Sicily, told his companions, "What a wrestling ground we are leaving, my friends, for the Carthaginians and the Romans".
Punic Wars (264–146 BC) First Punic War (264–241 BC) When Agathocles of Syracuse died in 288 BC, a large company of Italian mercenaries previously in his service found themselves suddenly unemployed. Naming themselves
Mamertines ("Sons of Mars"), they seized the city of Messana and became a law unto themselves, terrorizing the surrounding countryside. The Mamertines became a growing threat to Carthage and Syracuse alike. In 265 BC,
Hiero II of Syracuse, former general of Pyrrhus, took action against them. Faced with a vastly superior force, the Mamertines divided into two factions, one advocating surrender to Carthage, the other preferring to seek aid from Rome. While the
Roman Senate debated the best course of action, the Carthaginians eagerly agreed to send a garrison to Messana. Carthaginian forces were admitted to the city, and a Carthaginian fleet sailed into the Messanan harbor. However, soon afterwards they began negotiating with Hiero. Alarmed, the Mamertines sent another embassy to Rome asking them to expel the Carthaginians. and The Oath of
Hannibal.
The Oath of Hannibal by
Benjamin West, 1770|left Hiero's intervention placed Carthage's military forces directly across the
Strait of Messina, the narrow channel of water that separated Sicily from Italy. Moreover, the presence of the Carthaginian fleet gave them effective control over this strategically important bottleneck and demonstrated a clear and present danger to nearby Rome and her interests. As a result, the Roman Assembly, although reluctant to ally with a band of mercenaries, sent an expeditionary force to return control of Messana to the Mamertines. The subsequent Roman attack on Carthaginian forces at Messana triggered the first of the Punic Wars. During the First Punic Wars, the Romans under the command of
Marcus Atilius Regulus managed to land in Africa, though were ultimately repelled by the Carthaginians led by
Xanthippus after the carthaginian victory at the
battle of Tunis. The war also impacted Carthage's international standing, as Rome used the events of the war to back its claim over Sardinia and
Corsica, which it promptly seized.
Mercenary War (241–238 BC) The Mercenary War, also known as the Truceless War, was a mutiny by troops that were employed by Carthage at the end of the First Punic War (264–241 BC), supported by uprisings of African settlements revolting against Carthaginian control. It lasted from 241 to late 238 or early 237 BC and ended with Carthage suppressing both the mutiny and the revolt.
Second Punic War (218–201 BC) silver
shekel depicting a man wearing a
laurel wreath on the
obverse, and a man riding a
war elephant on the reverse, circa 239–209 BC Lingering mutual animosity and renewed tensions along their borderlands led to the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), which involved factions from across the western and eastern
Mediterranean. The war is marked by Hannibal's surprising overland journey to Rome, particularly his costly and strategically bold
crossing of the Alps. His entrance into northern Italy was followed by his reinforcement by Gaulish allies and crushing victories over Roman armies in the
Battle of the Trebia and the giant ambush at
Trasimene. Against his skill on the battlefield the Romans employed the
Fabian strategy, which resorted to skirmishes in lieu of direct engagement, with the aim of delaying and gradually weakening his forces. While effective, this approach was politically unpopular, as it ran contrary to traditional military strategy. The Romans thus resorted to another major field battle at
Cannae, but despite their superior numbers, suffered a crushing defeat, with an estimated 60,000 casualties. Crossing of the AlpsConsequently, many Roman allies went over to Carthage, prolonging the war in Italy for over a decade, during which more Roman armies were nearly consistently destroyed on the battlefield. Despite these setbacks, the Romans had the manpower to absorb such losses and replenish their ranks. Along with their superior capability in siegecraft, they were able to recapture all the major cities that had joined the enemy, as well as defeat a Carthaginian attempt to reinforce Hannibal at the
Battle of the Metaurus. Meanwhile, in Iberia, which served as the main source of manpower for the Carthaginian army, a second Roman expedition under
Scipio Africanus took
New Carthage and ended Carthaginian rule over the peninsula in the
Battle of Ilipa. , perhaps struck in a mint at
Bruttium where it was circulated during the Carthaginian occupation (216–211 BC);
janiform female heads are shown on the
obverse; on the reverse
Zeus wields a thunderbolt and sceptre while riding in a
quadriga driven by
Nike, goddess of victory. The final showdown was the
Battle of Zama, which took place in the Carthaginian heartland of Tunisia. After trouncing Carthaginian forces at the battles of
Utica and the
Great Plains, Scipio Africanus forced Hannibal to abandon his increasingly stalled campaign in Italy. Despite the latter's superior numbers and innovative tactics, the Carthaginians suffered a crushing and decisive defeat. After years of costly fighting that brought them to the verge of destruction, the Romans imposed harsh and retributive peace conditions on Carthage. In addition to a large financial indemnity, the Carthaginians were stripped of their once-proud navy and reduced only to their North African territory. In effect, Carthage became a Roman client state.
Third Punic War (149–146 BC) The third and final Punic War began in 149 BC, largely due to the efforts of hawkish Roman senators, led by
Cato the Elder, to finish Carthage off once and for all. Cato was known for finishing nearly every speech in the Senate, regardless of the subject, with the phrase
ceterum censeo Carthaginem esse delendam—"Moreover, I am of the opinion that Carthage ought to be destroyed". In particular, the growing Roman Republic sought the famously rich agricultural lands of Carthage and its African territories, which had been known to the Romans following their invasion in the previous Punic War. Carthage's border war with Rome's ally
Numidia, though initiated by the latter, nonetheless provided the pretext for Rome to declare war. The Third Punic War was a much smaller and shorter engagement than its predecessors, primarily consisting of a single main action, the
Battle of Carthage. However, despite their significantly reduced size, military, and wealth, the Carthaginians managed to mount a surprisingly strong initial defense. The Roman invasion was soon stalled by defeats at
Lake Tunis,
Nepheris, and
Hippagreta; even the diminished Carthaginian navy managed to inflict severe losses on a Roman fleet through the use of fire ships. Carthage itself managed to resist the Roman siege for three years, until
Scipio Aemilianus—the adopted grandson of Scipio Africanus—was appointed consul and took command of the assault. Notwithstanding its impressive resistance, Carthage's defeat was ultimately a foregone conclusion, given the far larger size and strength of the Roman Republic. Though it was the smallest of the Punic Wars, the third war was to be the most decisive: the complete destruction of the city of Carthage, the annexation of all remaining Carthaginian territory by Rome, and the death or enslavement of tens of thousands of Carthaginians. The war ended Carthage's independent existence, and consequently eliminated the last Phoenician political power.
Aftermath Following Carthage's destruction, Rome established
Africa Proconsularis, its first province in Africa, which roughly corresponded to Carthaginian territory.
Utica, which had allied itself with Rome during the final war, was granted tax privileges and made the regional capital, subsequently becoming the leading center of Punic trade and culture. In 122 BC,
Gaius Gracchus, a populist Roman senator, founded the short-lived
colony of
Colonia Iunonia, after the Latin name for the Punic goddess
Tanit,
Iuno Caelestis. Located near the site of Carthage, its purpose was to provide arable land for impoverished farmers, but it was soon abolished by the Roman Senate to undermine Gracchus' power. Nearly a century after the fall of Carthage,
Roman Carthage was built on the same site by
Julius Caesar between 49 and 44 BC. It soon became the center of the
province of Africa, which was a major
breadbasket of the Roman Empire and one of its wealthiest provinces. By the first century,
Carthago had grown to be the second-largest city in the western
Roman Empire, with a peak population of 500,000. Punic language, identity, and culture persisted in Rome for several centuries. Two Roman emperors in the third century,
Septimius Severus and his son and successor
Caracalla, were of Libyan Berber descent, and spoke Latin with a Punic accent. Linguists like Abdou Elimam have argued that
Maghrebi dialectal Arabic would have been derived in part from
Punic. This thesis implies that the two languages were in contact and that Punic was maintained until the
arrival of the Arabs in the 7th century, which is not historically proven. Indeed, nothing allows, through Arab sources, to perceive in North Africa another linguistic reality than
Berber (and Latin in Romanized sites). Arab authors are categorical on the nature of the deep Maghreb : Berber, rural and tribal. Latin
vernacular had several references to Punic culture, including
mala Punica ("Punic Apples") for pomegranates;
pavimentum Punicum to describe the use of patterned terracotta pieces in mosaics; and
plostellum Punicum for the
threshing board, which had been introduced to the Romans by Carthage
. Reflecting the enduring hostility towards Carthage, the phrase
Pūnica fidēs, or "Punic faith", was commonly used to describe acts of dishonesty, perfidy, and treachery. ==Government and politics==