inside the Temple of Doumu in
Butterworth, Penang,
Malaysia. in
Zhunan, Miaoli. Many classical books have lists and hierarchies of gods and immortals, among which are the "Completed Record of Deities and Immortals" (, ''
) of the Ming dynasty, and the Biographies of the Deities and Immortals (Shenxian Zhuan
) by Ge Hong (284–343). The older Collected Biographies of the Immortals (Liexian Zhuan'') also serves the same purpose. Couplets or polarities, such as Fuxi and Nuwa, Xiwangmu and Dongwanggong, and the highest couple of Heaven and
Earth, all embody
yin and yang and are at once the originators and maintainers of the ordering process of space and time. Immortals, or
xian, are seen as a variety of different types of beings, including the souls of virtuous Taoists, gods,
zhenren, Taoists historically worshiped them the most and
Chinese folk religion practitioners during the Tang dynasty also worshiped them, although there was more skepticism about the goodness, and even the existence, of
xian among them. In Taoism and Chinese folk religion, gods and
xian are often seen as embodiments of
water. Water gods and
xian were often thought to ensure good grain harvests, mild weather and seas, and rivers with abundant water.
Cosmic gods •
Holy Mother the Original Lord (Chinese: 聖母元君) is a Supreme Taoist Goddess considered the embodiment of Tao. •
Yudi (, "Jade Deity") or Yuhuang (, "Jade Emperor" or "Jade King"), is the popular human-like representation of the God of Heaven.
Jade traditionally represents purity, so it is a
metaphor for the unfathomable source of creation. •
Doumu (, "Mother of the Great Chariot"), often entitled with the honorific Tianhou (, "Queen of Heaven") is the heavenly goddess portrayed as the mother of the
Big Dipper (Great Chariot), whose seven stars, in addition to two invisible ones, are conceived as her sons, the Jiuhuangshen (, "Nine God-Kings"), themselves regarded as the ninefold manifestation of Jiuhuangdadi (, "Great Deity of the Nine Kings") or Doufu , "Father of the Great Chariot"), another name of the God of Heaven. She is, therefore, both wife and mother of the God of Heaven. •
Pangu (), a
macranthropic metaphor of the cosmos. He separated yin and yang, creating the earth (murky
yin) and the sky (clear
yang). All things were made from his body after he died. •
Xiwangmu (, "Queen Mother of the West"), identified with the
Kunlun Mountain, shamanic inspiration, death, and immortality. She is the dark,
chthonic goddess, pure
yin, at the same time terrifying and benign, both creation and destruction, associated with the tiger and weaving. Her male counterpart is
Dongwanggong (, "King Duke of the East"; also called Mugong, "Duke of the Woods"), who represents the
yang principle. •
Hòuyì (, "Yi the Archer"), was a man who sought for immortality, reaching Xiwangmu on her mountain, Kunlun. •
Yanwang (, "Purgatory King") the ruler of the
underworld, assisted by the
Heibai Wuchang (, "Black and White Impermanence"), representing the alternation of yin and yang principles, alongside
Ox-Head and Horse-Face, who escort spirits to his realm. •
Yinyanggong (, "Yinyang Duke") or Yinyangsi (, "Yinyang Controller"), the personification of the union of yin and yang.
Three Patrons and Five Deities (), the order of Heaven inscribing worlds as , "altar", the Chinese concept equivalent to the Indian mandala. The supreme God conceptualised as the Yellow Deity, and Xuanyuan as its human form, is the heart of the universe and the other Four Deities are his emanations. The diagram is based on the Huainanzi''. ,
Henan. ,
Fujian. ,
Tai'an,
Shandong. • ''
(,'' "Three Patrons or Augusts") or '
(, "Three Potencies"); they are the "vertical" manifestation of Heaven, spatially corresponding to the ' (, "Three Realms"), representing the yin and yang and the medium between them, that is the human being: •
Fuxi ()
, the patron of heaven (, '
), also called ' (, "Venerable Inventor of the
Bagua") by the Taoists, is a divine man reputed to have taught to humanity writing, fishing, and hunting. •
Nüwa ()
, the patroness of earth (, ''''), is a goddess attributed for the creation of mankind and mending the order of the world when it was broken. •
Shennong (), "Peasant God", the patron of humanity (, ''
), identified as Yandi'' (, "Flame Deity" or "Fiery Deity"), a divine man said to have taught the techniques of farming, herbal medicine, and marketing. He is often represented as a human with horns and other features of an ox. •
Wǔdì (, "Five Deities"), also '
(, "Five Manifestations of the Highest Deity"), ' (, "Five Manifestations of the Heavenly God"), '
(, "Five Forms Deity"), ' (, "Five Heavenly Deities"), '
(, "Five Ancient Lords"), ' (, "Five Ways God[s]"); they are the five main "horizontal" manifestations of Heaven, and along with the Three Potencies, they have a celestial, a terrestrial, and a
chthonic form. They correspond to the
five phases of creation, the
five constellations rotating around the celestial pole and five planets, the
five sacred mountains and five directions of space (their terrestrial form), and the five Dragon Gods which represent their mounts, that is to say, the material forces they preside over (their chthonic form). •
Huangdi (, "Yellow Emperor" or "Yellow Deity"); or '
(, "Yellow God"), also known as ' (, "Yellow Deity of the
Chariot Shaft"), is the '
(, "Great Deity of the Central Peak"): he represents the essence of earth and the Yellow Dragon, and is associated with Saturn. The character (', "yellow"), by
homophony and shared
etymology with (''
), also means "august", "creator", and "radiant", identifying the Yellow Emperor with Shangdi ("Highest Deity"). Huangdi represents the heart of creation, the axis mundi (Kunlun) that is the manifestation of the divine order in physical reality, opening the way to immortality. As the deity of the centre, intersecting the Three Patrons and the Five Deities, in the Shizi he is described as "Yellow Emperor with Four Faces" (, ). As a human, he is said to have been the fruit of a virginal birth, as his mother Fubao conceived him as she was aroused, while walking in the country, by a lightning from the Big Dipper (Great Chariot). She delivered her son after twenty-four months on the mount of Shou
(Longevity) or mount Xuanyuan (Chariot Shaft), after which he was named. He is reputed to be the founder of the Huaxia'' civilisation, and the
Han Chinese identify themselves as the
descendants of Yandi and Huangdi. •
Cangdi (, "Green Deity); or '
(, "Blue Deity" or "Bluegreen Deity", the ' (, "East Deity") or '
(, "Great Deity of the Eastern Peak"): he is ' (), associated with the essence of wood and with
Jupiter, and is the god of fertility and spring. The Bluegreen Dragon is both his animal form and constellation. His female consort is the goddess of fertility,
Bixia. •
Heidi (, "Black Deity), the '
(, "North Deity") or ' (, "Great Deity of the Northern Peak"): he is
Zhuanxu (), today frequently worshiped as
Xuanwu (, "Dark Warrior") or '''' (), and is associated with the essence of water and winter, and with
Mercury. His animal form is the Black Dragon and his stellar animal is the tortoise-snake. •
Chidi (, "Red Deity"), the '
(, "South Deity") or ' (, "Great Deity of the Southern Peak"): he is
Shennong (the "Divine Farmer"), the
Yandi ("Fiery Deity"), associated with the essence of fire and summer, and with
Mars. His animal form is the Red Dragon and his stellar animal is the phoenix. He is the god of agriculture, animal husbandry, medicinal plants, and market. •
Baidi (, "White Deity"), the '
(, "West Deity") or ' (, "Great Deity of the Western Peak"): he is
Shaohao (), and is the god of the essence of metal and autumn, associated with
Venus. His animal form is the White Dragon and his stellar animal is the tiger. • The
Three Great Emperor-Officials: the '
(, "Official of Heaven"), the ' (, "Official of Earth"), and the '
(, "Official of Water").''' In mythology, Huangdi and Yandi fought a
battle against each other, and Huang finally defeated Yan with the help of the Dragon (the controller of water, who is Huangdi himself). This myth symbolizes the equipoise of yin and yang, here the fire of knowledge (reason and craft) and earthly stability. • '''' (, "Hail God") • ''
(''), the '
(, "Insect God") or ' (, "Insect King"): the gods of insects. • '''' (, "Landlord God"). • '''' (, "Smallpox God"). •
Fei Lian (), the '
(, "Wind God").' • '
(, "Sea God"); also ' (, "Sea Lord"). •
Hebo (, "River Lord") or '''' (, "River God"): any
watercourse god, among which, one of the most revered is the god of the
Yellow River. • ''
(, "Valley God"): in the Daodejing,'' a name used to refer to the
Way • ''
(, "Fire God"), often personified as Zhurong'' () • '''' (, "Lake God") • '''' (, "Soil God") • '''' (, "Grain God") • '
(, "Gold God"), often identified as the ' (, "Autumn God") and personified as
Rùshōu () • '''' (, "Waterspring God"). •
Leishen (, "Thunder God") or '
(, "Thunder Duke"); his consort is ' (, "Lightning Mother"). • '
(, "Woodland God"), usually the same as the ' (, "Spring God"), and as '''' (). • '''' (, "Mountain God") • '''' (, "Water God") •
Tudishen (, "God of the Local Land"), also ''
(, "Earth God"), or Tudigong (, "Duke of the Local Land"): the tutelary deity of any locality. Their Overlord is Houtu'' (, "Queen of the Earth"). •
Wen Shen (, "Plague God") •
Xiangshuishen (, "Xiang Waters' Goddesses"): the patrons of the
Xiang River. • '''' (, "Snow God") • '''' (, "Rain God") •
Xihe ()
, the '
(, "Great Sun Goddess") or ' (, "Mother of the Ten Suns"). • '
(, "Moon Goddesses"): ' () or '''' (, "Mother of the Twelve Moons"), and
Chang'e ().
Gods of human virtues and crafts (middle),
Guan Ping (his right) and
Zhou Cang (his left) at a Chinese folk religious temple in
Osaka,
Japan. Guandi is one of the most revered gods among Han Chinese. in
Luodong,
Yilan,
Taiwan. ,
Guangdong. in
Qingdao,
Shandong.Some Taoist gods were thought to affect human morality and the consequences of it in certain traditions. Some Taoists beseeched gods, multiple gods, and/or
pantheons to aid them in life and/or abolish their sins. • Civil and military (
wen and wu) deities: •
Wendi (, "Culture Deity"), also '
(, "Deity who Makes Culture Thrive") or ' (, "King who Makes Culture Thrive"): in southern provinces, this deity takes the identity of various historical persons, while in the north, he is more frequently identified as being the same as
Confucius (, '''') •
Kuixing (, "Chief Star"): another god of culture and literature, but specifically, examination, is a personification of the man who awakens to the order of the Great Chariot. • ''
(, "Military Deity"): Guandì (, "Divus'' Guan"), also called '
(, "Duke Guan"), and popularly ' (). • Another class is the ''
(, "Fight God"), who may be personified by Chiyou () or Xingtian (), who was decapitated for fighting against Tian''. •
Baoshengdadi (, "Great Deity who Protects Life"). •
Baxian (, "Eight Immortals"). •
Canshen (, "Silkworm God"), who may be: • '
(, "Silkworm Mother"), also called ' (, "Silkworm Maiden"), who is identified as
Leizu (), the wife of the Yellow Emperor: the invention of
sericulture is attributed primarily to her. • '
(, "Bluegreen-Clad God"): his name as a human was ' (, "Silkworm Twig"), and he is the first ruler and ancestor of the
Shu state and promoter of sericulture among his people. •
Caishen (, "Wealth God"). • ''
(, "Salt God"): a pantheon of salt deities that bring wealth to their adherents, including ChiYou
for his blood turned into a pool of salt after he died in some tellings, Sushashi
for being the first to extract salt from seawater in mythology, Guan Zhong'' for he gave his state an
official monopoly on salt operations, and animals of all types, such as
crows and
deer, which were credited with leading humans to salt and thus granted divinity. Many of the salt gods can be worshipped as wealth gods. •
Cangjie (), the four-eyed inventor of the
Chinese characters. • '''' (, "Granary God"). • '''' (, "Lord of Sichuan") •
Chenghuangshen (, "Moat and Walls God", or "Boundary God"): the god of the sacred boundaries of a human agglomeration, he is often personified by founding fathers or noble personalities from each city or town. •
Chen Jinggu (, "Old Quiet Lady"), also called '''' (, "Waterside Dame"). • '''' (, "Gate God"). • '''' (, "Vehicle God") •
Erlangshen (, "Twice Young God"), the god of engineering. • '''' (, "Honorific King of Great Compassion"). •
Guanyin (, "She who Hears the Cries of the World"), the goddess of
mercy. •
Huang Daxian (, "Great Immortal Huang"). •
Jigong (, "Help Lord"). • ''
(, "Wine God"), personified as Yidi'' (). •
Jiutian Xuannü (, "Mysterious Lady of the Nine Heavens"), a disciple of
Xiwangmu and initiator of
Huangdi. •
Longmu (, "Dragon Mother"). •
Lu Ban (), the god of carpentry. • '''' (, "Road God"). • '''' (, "Walking God"). •
Mazu (, "Ancestral Mother"), often entitled the "Queen of Heaven". • '''' (, "Judging Official"). • '''' (, "Peace God"), an embodiment of whom is considered to have been
Mao Zedong. •
Qingshui Zushi (, "Venerable Patriarch of the Clear Stream") • '''' (, "Pottery God") •
Tuershen (, "Leveret God"), the god of love among males. • ''
(, "Pagoda-Bearing Heavenly King"), also known as Li Jing (). He has three sons, the warlike protector deities Jinzha (), Muzha (), and Nezha'' (). • '''' (, "Five Shining Ones"), possibly a popular form of the cosmological Five Deities. • '''' (, "Joy God"). • '
(, "Medicine God") or frequently ' (, "Medicine King"). •
Yuexia Laoren (, "Old Man Under the Moon"), the matchmaker who pairs lovers together. • '''' (, "Jail-Purgatory God") •
Zaoshen (, "Hearth God"), the master of the household deities, including the "
Bed God" (, '
), the "Gate Gods" (, '), and the "
Toilet god" (, ''''), often personified as
Zigu. •
Zhong Kui (), the vanquisher of
ghosts and evil beings. •
Sanxing (, "Three Stars"), a cluster of three astral gods of well-being: •
Fuxing (, "Prosperity Star"), god of happiness. •
Luxing (, "Firmness Star"), god of firmness and success in life and examinations. •
Shouxing (, "Longevity Star"), who stands for a healthy and long life.
Gods of animal and vegetal life • '''' (, "Flower Goddess"). •
Huxian (, "Fox God[dess]") or '
(, "Fox Immortal"), also called ' (, "Fox Immortal Lady"). • Two other great fox deities, peculiar to northeast China, are the "Great Lord of the Three Foxes" (, '
) and the "Great Lady of the Three Foxes" (, '), representing the yin and yang. • '
(, "Horse God") or ' (, "Horse King"). • '
(, "Cattle God" or "Ox God"), also called ' (, "Cattle King"). • '''' (, "Wolf God"). • '''' (, "Tree God[s]"). • ''
(, "Five Cereals God"), another name for Shennong''. • '
(, "Monkey God") or ' (, "Monkey King"), who is identified as
Sun Wukong (). • '''' (, "Sesame God")
Bixia mother goddess worship The worship of
mother goddesses for the
cultivation of offspring is present all over China, but predominantly in northern provinces. There are nine main goddesses, and all of them tend to be considered as manifestations or attendant forces of a singular goddess identified variously as
Bixia Yuanjun (, "Lady of the Blue Dawn"), also known as the '
(, "Heavenly Immortal Lady") or ' (, "Lady of Mount Tai"), or also '''' (, "Holy Mother of the Nine Skies") or
Houtu, the goddess of the earth. Bixia herself is identified by Taoists as the more ancient goddess
Xiwangmu. The general Chinese term for "goddess" is '
(), and goddesses may receive many qualifying titles, including ' (, "mother"), '
(, "old mother"), ' (, "holy mother"), '
(, "lady"), ' (, "granny"). The additional eight main goddesses of fertility, reproduction, and growth are: Other goddesses worshipped in China include '
(, "Silkworm Mother") or ' (, "Silkworm Maiden"), identified with
Leizu (, the wife of the Yellow Emperor),
Magu (, "Hemp Maiden"),
Saoqing Niang (, "Goddess who Sweeps Clean"), '''' (, "Goddess of the Three Isles"), and
Wusheng Laomu. The mother goddess is central in the theology of many
folk religious sects.
Gods of northeast China Northeast China has clusters of deities which are peculiar to the area, deriving from the
Manchu and broader
Tungusic substratum of the local population.
Animal deities related to
shamanic practices are characteristic of the area and reflect wider Chinese cosmology. Besides the aforementioned
Fox Gods (,
Húxiān), they include: • '''' (, "Yellow Immortal", the Weasel God. • '
(, "Snake Immortal"), also variously called ' (, "Immortal Liu"), or '
(, "Viper Immortal") or also ' (, "Python or Boa Immortal"). • '''' (, "White Immortal"), the Hedgehog God. • '
(, "Black Immortal"), who may be the ' (, "Crow Immortal"), or the '''' (, "Rat Immortal"), with the latter considered a misinterpretation of the former.
Gods of Indian origin , Taiwan. Gods who have been adopted into Chinese religion but who have their origins in the
Indian subcontinent or
Hinduism: •
Guanyin (, "She who Hears the Cries of the World"), a Chinese goddess of mercy modeled after the
bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara • ''
(, "Four-Faced God"), but also a metaphor for "Ubiquitous God": The recent cult has its origin in the Thai transmission of the Hindu god Brahma, but it is also an epithet of the indigenous Chinese god Huangdi who, as the deity of the centre of the cosmos, is described in the Shizi as "Yellow Emperor with Four Faces" (, ''). • '''' (, "Elephant-Head God"), is the Indian god
Ganesha.
Gods of North China and Mongolia •
Genghis Khan (, '
), worshipped by Mongols and Chinese under a variety of divinity titles, including ' (, "Holy Military Sovereign Deity"), '
(, "Starter of the Transmission of the Law of Heaven"), and ' (, "Great Ancestor") of the
Yuan and the Mongols.
Gods of folk and Local •
Heng and Ha (), two generals of the Shang dynasty, guards of Buddhist temples in East Asia. •
Menshen (, "Door Gods"), divine guardians of doors and gates. •
Shentu and Yulü (), a pair of deities who punished evil spirits. •
Luoshen (), the goddess of the
Luo River. •
Goddess Golden Flower (金花聖母), popularly known in Cantonese as Kam Fa Neung Neung (金花娘娘), is a revered deity in
Southern Chinese folk religion, particularly in
Guangdong and
Hong Kong. ==See also==