Ancient history and middle ages A concern for environmental protection has recurred in diverse forms, in different parts of the world, throughout history. The earliest ideas of environmental protectionism can be found in
Jainism, a religion from ancient India revived by
Mahavira in the 6th century BC.
Jainism offers a view that is in many ways compatible with core values associated with environmental activism, such as the protection of life by
nonviolence, which could form a strong ecological ethos for global protection of the environment. Mahavira's teachings on the symbiosis between all living beings—as well as the five elements of earth, water, air, fire, and space—are core to environmental thought today. In West Asia, the
Caliph Abu Bakr in the 630s AD commanded his army to "Bring no harm to the trees, nor burn them with fire," and to "Slay not any of the enemy's flock, save for your food." Various
Islamic medical treatises during the 9th to 13th centuries dealt with environmentalism and
environmental science, including the issue of pollution. The authors of such treatises included
Al-Kindi,
Qusta ibn Luqa,
Al-Razi,
Ibn Al-Jazzar,
al-Tamimi,
al-Masihi,
Avicenna,
Ali ibn Ridwan,
Ibn Jumay,
Isaac Israeli ben Solomon,
Abd-el-latif, Ibn al-Quff, and
Ibn al-Nafis. Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution, such as air pollution,
water pollution,
soil contamination, and the mishandling of
municipal solid waste. They also included
assessments of certain localities' environmental impact. Within the religious tradition of the
Catholic church, the friar
Francis of Assisi gave expression to a profound mystical reverence for the natural environment as early as 1224. In his lyrical poem
Canticle of the Sun Francis offered both an ethical and spiritual context for the practice of environmentalism. He extolled mankind to affirm a divine presence within the natural realm while calling into question mankind's dominance of the environment, personifying God's living presence in his creation and urging humanity to offer thanksgiving for that presence by extending praise through "...Sister Mother Earth, who sustains us and governs us and who produces varied fruits with coloured flowers and herbs.. Praised be You, my Lord, through Brother Wind, and through the air, cloudy and serene, and every kind of weather through which you give sustenance to Your creatures." In Europe, King
Edward I of England banned the burning and sale of "
sea-coal" in 1272 by proclamation in London, after its smoke had become a prevalent annoyance throughout the city. This fuel, common in London due to the local scarcity of wood, was given this early name because it could be found washed up on some shores, from where it was carted away on a wheelbarrow. King
Philip II of Spain was noted by his love of nature, which according to historian
Henry Kamen, turned him into one of the first
ecologist rulers in European history. He issued orders to conserve the Spanish forests, noting in 1582 the great disservice they would do to future generations by depleting them.
Industrial Revolution , sparking the first modern
environmental laws to be passed in the mid-19th century. The origins of the environmental movement lay in the response to increasing levels of
smoke pollution in the
atmosphere during the
Industrial Revolution. The emergence of great factories and the concomitant immense growth in
coal consumption gave rise to an unprecedented level of
air pollution in industrial centers; after 1900 the large volume of industrial
chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste. The first large-scale, modern environmental laws came in the form of Britain's
Alkali Acts, passed in 1863, to regulate the deleterious air pollution (
gaseous hydrochloric acid) given off by the
Leblanc process, used to produce
soda ash. In industrial cities, local experts and reformers, especially after 1890, took the lead in identifying
environmental degradation and pollution, and initiating grass-roots movements to demand and achieve reforms. Typically the highest priority went to water and air pollution.
19th century '' by
Henry David Thoreau also known as "John of the Mountains" and "Father of the
National Parks", was a Scottish-born American
naturalist, author,
environmental philosopher,
botanist,
zoologist,
glaciologist, and early advocate for the preservation of
wilderness in the United States. The late 19th century saw the passage of the first wildlife conservation laws. The zoologist
Alfred Newton published a series of investigations into the ''Desirability of establishing a 'Close-time' for the preservation of indigenous animals'' between 1872 and 1903. His advocacy for legislation to protect animals from hunting during the mating season led to the formation of the
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and influenced the passage of the
Sea Birds Preservation Act in 1869 as the first nature protection law in the world.
The movement in the United States began in the late 19th century, out of concerns for protecting the natural resources of the West, with individuals such as
John Muir and
Henry David Thoreau making key philosophical contributions. Thoreau was interested in peoples' relationship with nature and studied this by living close to nature in a simple life. He published his experiences in the book
Walden, which argues that people should become intimately close with nature. Muir came to believe in nature's inherent right, especially after spending time hiking in
Yosemite Valley and studying both the ecology and geology. He successfully lobbied congress to form
Yosemite National Park and went on to set up the
Sierra Club in 1892. The conservationist principles as well as the belief in an inherent right of nature were to become the bedrock of modern environmentalism. The prevailing belief regarding the origins of early environmentalism suggests that it emerged as a local response to the adverse impacts of industrialization in Western nations and communities. In terms of conservation efforts, there is a widespread view that the conservation movement began as a predominantly
elite concern in North America, focusing on the preservation of local natural areas. A less prevailing view, however, attributes the roots of early environmentalism to a growing public concern about the influence of Western economic forces, particularly in connection with
colonization, on tropical environments.
Richard Grove, in a 1990 publication, points out that little attention has been given to the significance of the colonial experience, particularly the European colonial experience, in shaping early European environmentalism. Pioneers of the movement called for more efficient and professional management of natural resources. They fought for reform because they believed the destruction of forests, fertile soil, minerals, wildlife, and water resources would lead to the downfall of society. In the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, several events illustrated the magnitude of environmental damage caused by humans. In 1954, a
hydrogen bomb test at
Bikini Atoll exposed the 23-man crew of the Japanese fishing vessel
Lucky Dragon 5 to radioactive fallout. The incident is known as
Castle Bravo, the largest thermonuclear device ever detonated by the United States and the first in a series of high-yield thermonuclear weapon design tests. In 1967 the oil tanker ran aground off the coast of
Cornwall, and in 1969 oil spilled from an offshore well in California's
Santa Barbara Channel. In 1971, the conclusion of a lawsuit in
Japan drew international attention to the effects of decades of
mercury poisoning on the people of
Minamata. At the same time, emerging scientific research drew new attention to existing and hypothetical threats to the environment and humanity. Among them were
Paul R. Ehrlich, whose book
The Population Bomb (1968) revived
Malthusian concerns about the impact of exponential population growth. Biologist
Barry Commoner generated a debate about growth, affluence and "flawed technology." Additionally, an association of scientists and political leaders known as the
Club of Rome published their report
The Limits to Growth in 1972, and drew attention to the growing pressure on natural resources from human activities., aided by automobile ownership. Another major literary force in the promotion of the environmental movement was
Rachel Carson's 1962 book
Silent Spring about declining bird populations due to
DDT, an insecticide, pollutant, and man's attempts to control nature through the use of synthetic substances. Her core message for her readers was to identify the complex and fragile ecosystem and the threats facing the population. Her book sold over two million copies. The book cataloged the environmental impacts of the indiscriminate spraying of
DDT in the US and questioned the logic of releasing large amounts of chemicals into the environment without fully understanding their effects on human health and ecology. The book suggested that DDT and other pesticides may cause
cancer and that their agricultural use was a threat to wildlife, particularly birds. The resulting public concern led to the creation of the
United States Environmental Protection Agency in 1970 which subsequently banned the agricultural use of DDT in the US in 1972. The limited use of DDT in
disease vector control continues to this day in certain parts of the world and remains controversial. The book's legacy was to produce a far greater awareness of environmental issues and interest into how people affect the environment. With this new interest in environment came interest in problems such as air pollution and petroleum spills, and environmental interest grew. New pressure groups formed, notably
Greenpeace and
Friends of the Earth (US), as well as notable local organizations such as the
Wyoming Outdoor Council, which was founded in 1967. Greenpeace was created in 1971 as an organization that believed that political advocacy and legislation were ineffective or inefficient solutions and supported non-violent action. From 1962 to 1998, the environmental movement founded 772 national organizations in the United States. In the 1970s, the environmental movement gained rapid speed around the world as a productive outgrowth of the
counterculture movement. The world's first political parties to campaign on a predominantly environmental platform were the
United Tasmania Group of
Tasmania, Australia, and the
Values Party of New Zealand. The first
green party in Europe was the Popular Movement for the Environment, founded in 1972 in the Swiss canton of
Neuchâtel. The first national green party in Europe was PEOPLE, founded in Britain in February 1973, which eventually turned into the
Ecology Party, and then the
Green Party. Protection of the environment also became important in the
developing world; the
Chipko movement was formed in India under the influence of
Mahatma Gandhi and led by
Chandi Prasad Bhatt,
Sunderlal Bahuguna and some local leaders. They set up peaceful resistance to
deforestation by literally hugging trees (leading to the term "tree huggers").
Chipko literally translates as an open call to hug, and has become a widely recognised and oft replicated action in public protests to save trees. Their peaceful methods of protest and slogan "ecology is permanent economy" were very influential. Another milestone in the movement was the creation of
Earth Day. The first Earth Day was celebrated on April 22, 1970. It was created to give awareness to environmental issues. On 21 March 1971, United Nations Secretary-General
U Thant spoke of a
spaceship Earth on Earth Day, hereby referring to the
ecosystem services the earth supplies to us, and hence our obligation to protect it (and with it, ourselves). Earth Day is now coordinated globally by the
Earth Day Network, and is celebrated in more than 192 countries every year. Its founder, former Wisconsin Senator
Gaylord Nelson, was inspired to create this day of environmental education and awareness after seeing the
oil spill off the coast of Santa Barbara in 1969. In 1972, the
United Nations Conference on the Human Environment was held in
Stockholm, and for the first time united the representatives of multiple governments in discussion relating to the state of the global environment. It marked a turning point in the development of international environmental politics. This conference led directly to the creation of government environmental agencies and the
UN Environment Program. By the mid-1970s, many felt that people were on the edge of environmental catastrophe. The
back-to-the-land movement started to form and ideas of environmental ethics joined with
anti-Vietnam War sentiments and other political issues. These individuals lived outside normal society and started to take on some of the more radical environmental theories such as
deep ecology. Around this time more mainstream environmentalism was starting to show force with the signing of the
Endangered Species Act in 1973 and the formation of
CITES in 1975. Significant amendments were also enacted to the United States
Clean Air Act and
Clean Water Act.
21st century meets with the 2016 Goldman Environmental Prize recipients – six individuals who have made a profound impact in their communities and throughout the world by fighting for
environmental justice. On an international level, concern for the environment was the subject of a
United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972, attended by 113 nations. Out of this meeting developed the
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the follow-up
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992. Other international organizations in support of environmental policies development include the
Commission for Environmental Cooperation (as part of
NAFTA), the
European Environment Agency (EEA), and the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Environmentalism continues to evolve to face up to new issues such as
global warming,
overpopulation,
genetic engineering, and
plastic pollution. However, research in 2013 showed a precipitous decline in the United States' public's interest in 19 different areas of environmental concern. in 2008 Since the 2000s, the environmental movement has increasingly focused on
climate change as one of the top issues. As concerns about climate change moved more into the mainstream, from the connections drawn between global warming and
Hurricane Katrina to
Al Gore's 2006 documentary film
An Inconvenient Truth, more and more environmental groups refocused their efforts. In the United States, 2007 witnessed the largest grassroots environmental demonstration in years,
Step It Up 2007, with rallies in over 1,400 communities and all 50 states for real global warming solutions. Publicity and widespread organizing of
school strike for the climate began after Swedish schoolgirl
Greta Thunberg staged a protest in August 2018 outside the Swedish
Riksdag (parliament). The
September 2019 climate strikes were likely the largest climate strikes in world history. In 2019, a survey found that climate breakdown is viewed as the most important issue facing the world in seven out of the eight countries surveyed. Many religious organizations and individual churches now have programs and activities dedicated to environmental issues. The religious movement is often supported by interpretation of scriptures. ==Themes==