Theatre in China dates back to as early as the
Shang dynasty (16th century BC?– 1046 BC).
Oracle bone records reference rain dances performed by
shamans, while the
Book of Documents mentions shamanistic dancing and singing. For the
Zhou dynasty ( 1046 BC – 256 BC), evidence from the
Chu Ci suggests that in the 4th or 3rd century BC
State of Chu, shamans performed with music and costumes. Some scholars have identified poems from the
Classic of Poetry as possible lyrics of songs accompanying court dances from the early or mid-Zhou dynasty. The Zhou royal court as well as the various
ancient states employed professional entertainers which included not only dancers and musicians but also actors. The earliest court actors were likely clowns who pantomimed, danced, sang, and performed comedy. One of the most famous actors from this period was You Meng or Jester Meng (優孟), a giant who served
King Zhuang of Chu (reigned 613–591 BC). After meeting the impoverished son of
Sunshu Ao, the late prime minister of Chu, he is said to have spent a year imitating Sunshu Ao's speech and mannerism. Finally he performed his role at a banquet and successfully appealed to King Zhuang who then granted land to Sunshu Ao's son.
Records of the Grand Historian by
Sima Qian contains a passage about
Confucius (551–479 BC) explaining the Great Warrior Dance or Dawu Dance (), which told the story of
King Wu of Zhou's overthrow of the Shang dynasty in 1046 BC, and how he founded the Zhou dynasty with the help of
Duke of Zhou and
Duke of Shao. The Great Warrior Dance not only depicted a full story, but was also filled with symbolism, as Confucius explained: which depicts entertainers at an aristocratic banquet. During the
Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD), a wrestling show called Horn-Butting Show () flourished and became one of the so-called "Hundred Shows" (百戲) under
Emperor Wu (reigned 141–87 BC). While most probably this was also a spectator sport, both textual and archaeological evidence suggests that performers were dressed in fixed roles and performed according to a plot. One such story the wrestlers re-enacted was the battle between a tiger and a magician named "Lord Huang from the East Sea" (東海黃公). Han-period murals discovered from an aristocratic tomb in
Dahuting,
Xinmi,
Henan, offer strong proof that entertainers performed at banquets in the homes of higher-ranking ministers during this period.
Six Dynasties, Tang dynasty, and Five Dynasties An early form of Chinese drama is the
Canjun Opera (參軍戲, or Adjutant Play) which originated from the
Later Zhao dynasty (319–351). In its early form, it was a simple comic drama involving only two performers, where a corrupt officer,
Canjun or the
adjutant, was ridiculed by a jester named Grey Hawk (蒼鶻). Various song and dance dramas developed during the
Six Dynasties period. During the
Northern Qi dynasty, a masked dance called the Big Face (大面, which can mean "mask", alternatively
daimian 代面, and it was also called
The Prince of Lanling, 蘭陵王), was created in honour of
Gao Changgong who went into battle wearing a mask. In
The Dancing Singing Woman (踏謡娘), which relates the story of a wife battered by her drunken husband, the song and dance drama was initially performed by a man dressed as a woman. The stories told in of these song-and-dance dramas are simple, but they are thought to be the earliest pieces of musical theatre in China, and the precursors to the more sophisticated later forms of Chinese opera. The
Later Tang (923–937) founding emperor
Li Cunxu (885–926) — who was of
Shatuo extraction — was so passionate about theatre that he enjoyed acting himself. During his reign, he appointed three actors to prefect-ship and in the process alienated his army. In 926, after just 3 years on the throne, he was killed in a mutiny led by a former actor named
Guo Congqian.
Song, Jin, and Yuan dynasties In the
Song dynasty, popular plays involving drama and music began to be developed, and by the 12th century, the term xìqǔ (戲曲) to mean Chinese opera began to be used this new form of theatrical entertainment. The development of theatre during the Song dynasty may also have been influenced by a Tang Buddhist tradition
bianwen (變文), which mixed speech with song and used by monks to communicate Buddhist idea to the illiterate masses, but became popular entertainment during the Song dynasty. The narrative ballad and story-telling forms influenced Song dramas. Buddhist stories such as
Mulian Rescues His Mother became themes in plays, and the one on Mulian was the first Chinese drama of great length.
The Romance of the Western Chamber Zhu Gongdiao (西廂記諸宮調) by Dong Jieyuan (董解元) (later adapted into
Romance of the Western Chamber by
Wang Shifu) was created from
bianwen. In Southern Song, a form of play called
nanxi or
Xiwen (戲文) developed in
Wenzhou from local folk customs and musical forms. This has a set length and a full narrative, and the actors performed with speech and songs.
Nanxi spread widely in the Southern Song, and theatrical entertainment flourished in its capital Lin'an (present day
Hangzhou). Among the earliest surviving scripts is Southern Song work,
The No. 1 Scholar Zhang Xie (張協狀元). Specialised roles such as
Dan (旦, dàn, female),
Sheng (生, male),
Jing (净,) and
Chou (丑, clown) appeared in the Song era, and scripts referred to the roles such as the
Dan or
Sheng rather than the characters' names. A form of theatre known as
zaju began to be developed in the Song and Jin dynasties. Song and Jin
zaju was a small-scale comic form of theatre, and was distinct from Yuan
zaju with its own independent development. Music is incidental to Song Jin
zaju with incomplete narratives.
zaju stage c. 1324, found in the
Guangsheng Temple of
Shanxi province.
Zaju became the dominant form of theatre during the
Yuan dynasty in major cities such as
Kaifeng,
Luoyang and Lin'an. Yuan dynasty
zaju was also known as Northern tune (北曲) to distinguish it from the Southern form
nanxi.
Zaju in the Yuan dynasty became a more sophisticated form that has a four- or five-act structure with a prologue. Each act is a musical piece based on a different
gongdiao. It was performed by courtesans for the amusement of court or local government officials.
Zaju plays were focused on the principal male (
Sheng) and female (
Dan) characters, with the singing courtesans playing the main male or female characters, but some are played exclusively by male actors. Over time subcategories of male and female roles (such as lead and supporting roles, young, old or comic roles) also emerged. Among the best-known dramatists of the period were
Guan Hanqing (many of his works survive, including
The Injustice to Dou E),
Wang Shifu (who wrote
Romance of the Western Chamber),
Ma Zhiyuan (whose representative work is
Autumn in Han Palace, 漢宮秋),
Ji Junxiang (best known for
The Orphan of Zhao), and
Bai Pu. Verses from Yuan
zaju are considered one of the important forms of Chinese literature,
yuanqu (元曲).
Ming dynasty The
nanxi of the Song and Yuan dynasties was considered a low art form due to its unsophisticated literary style, and its plays were often written by anonymous authors. The first
nanxi work with a known author is
Tale of the Pipa by
Gao Ming, written in the late Yuan period.
Tale of the Pipa elevated the status of
nanxi, and was highly regarded by the first
Ming Emperor
Hongwu. It became a model for
Ming dynasty drama.
Nanxi and other regional forms, such as such as Haiyan, Yuyao, an Yiyang tunes developed in Zhejiang, gradually replaced the northern
zaju, and by the middle of the Ming dynasty,
nanxi had developed into a more complex dramatic form known as
chuanqi, which further developed into
Kunqu Opera. operas,
The Peony Pavilion The Ming dynasty play writers were mostly educated and hold relatively high social status, and
chuanqi works were created mainly by scholars.
Wei Liangfu created Kunshan tunes modified from tunes of Haiyan from near Hangzhou and Yiyang of Jiangxi, and he combined the
nanxi rhythms which often used flute, and the northern
zaju where plucked string instruments are preferred. The first
Kunqu opera,
Washing Silken Gauze (浣紗記,
Huan Sha Ji) was created by
Liang Chenyu who used Kunshan tunes. Kunqu was regarded as an elegant part of the culture; it was promoted by scholars, and therefore became highly influential. In the Ming dynasty, southern
yiyang tunes fused with Kunqu and spread widely.
Yiyang tunes lacked formal rules, was more uninhibited and exciting, therefore more appealing to the local classes and easily fused with local musical styles and produced many high-pitched tunes in numerous local operas. Another important development was the emergence of Shaanxi Opera in the Northwest with a two-phrase structure and clapper-based instrumentation, introducing a new form of musical style called
banqiang (板腔). Its spread was facilitated by a
Shaanxi rebel
Li Zicheng who ended the Ming dynasty, later influencing the development of
Peking Opera during the Qing dynasty. During the Ming period (1368-1644), Chinese theatre may be divided into three categories by audience: imperial court, social elite, and the general public. The Ming imperial court enjoyed opera, and Ming emperors generally kept their music entertainments within the palace. Ming theatre, however, had less freedom than the previous dynasty, Yuan. In the Yuan and early Song period, some plays may include a role of the emperor, however, Ming Emperor
Taizu prohibited actors from impersonating any imperial members, high officials, or well-respected figures, Private theatre troupes featured prominently during Ming China, and government officials, rich merchants, and eunuchs may manage private theatre troupes to entertainment guests in stages built in their private residences, or a sign of status. A female courtesan in late Ming named Ma Xianglan was the only woman known to have owned a private theatre troupe. Developing a private theatre troupe represented a huge investment; the owners first pick potential actors from poor families or slave households and from performing schools, with more emphasis on their looks. and the owners would invest in further training for these people. The troupe leaders may hire retired actors to teach the actors, and some were trained actors themselves. The actors underwent strict training in singing, dancing, and role-playing techniques, which may take as long as eight years. While the performers were highly skilled, they were also regarded to be of low status in Ming society, as it was common practice for them to provide sexual services, both heterosexual and homosexual. Some actresses become their owners' wives or concubines Professional public troupes did not thrive until Ming elite class started to collapse. Due to the Ming's Confucian influence of gender separation, public theatres were dominated by males. Confucian influences extended to the plays; Ming plays often conveyed Confucian teachings, especially in private theatre troupes.
Qing dynasty During the Qing dynasty,
Peking opera developed from a mixing of different opera styles and became the dominant form. In 1790, various local opera troupes performed in Beijing in celebration of the 55th year of
Qianlong Emperor's reign. The Huizhou opera troupes, which performed operas with diverse tune patterns including Kunqu, Clapper Opera and the Erhuang melody prove to be the most popular. Hanju Opera that came from the
Yangtze River and
Hanshui area was also popular, and the mixing of Huizhou and Hanju produced the Peking Opera. Peking opera inherited many stories form Kunqu opera, but other styles of opera, such as the Clapper opera, which were popular with the common people had greater influence on its development. Teahouses which sprang up in Beijing staged Peking operas. Kunqu, referred to as Yabu (雅部, "elegant drama"), declined in popularity as it came under competition from a variety of operas including
Peking Opera known collectively as Huabu (花部, "flowery drama"). A range of other regional operas also emerged, such as
Shanxi opera,
Henan opera,
Hebei opera, Shandong Laizhou clapper opera,
Cantonese opera and Fujian opera. In various regions, local forms of opera flourished, and became popular in major cities by the end of the Qing dynasty and early Republican era. Some of these may developed from folk song-and-dance performances that evolved from "The Dancing Singing Woman" (踏謡娘) style of theatre, such as Flower-Drum (花鼓) Opera, Flower-Lantern (花燈) Opera, Tea-Picking (採茶) Opera and
Yangge Opera. For example, the Huangxiao Flower-Drum opera of Hubei evolved into Chuju (楚劇) in
Wuhan. Wuxi Opera, Shanghai Opera, and
Shaoxing Opera on the other hand developed from a form of opera popular south of the Yangtze River called Tanhuang, while
Pingju Opera formed from Lianhualao and Yangge in Hebei.
20th century By the early 20th century, non-singing theatrical forms began to appear under the influence of Western dramas and stage plays. Shanghai, where Western drama was first staged by Western expatriate communities in China in 1850, was the birthplace of modern Chinese stage plays. Students of
St. John's College were known to have performed the first modern Chinese play
A Shameful Story About Officialdom (官场丑事,
Guan Chang Chou Shi') in 1899, and in 1900, students of Nanyang College staged three plays based on contemporary events, such as one based on the
Six Gentlemen (六君子) and the
Boxer Rebellion. Student plays proliferated, with students playing an important role in the development of spoken theater (
huaju), and notable dramatists such as
Cao Yu,
Hong Shen, and
Gao Xingjian began honed their craft on campus. Among the most important plays produced in this period was
Thunderstorm by Cao Yu. In the Republican era,
Cantonese opera entered a golden age, with numerous new plays being written. Peking Opera also became popular in Shanghai, where new dramas in the form serialized dramas emerged. The best-known actor of Peking opera was
Mei Lanfang, whose performances spread the fame of Peking opera worldwide. '' In the
People's Republic of China era, the government set up a special department for the improvement of drama. The first national opera festival was organized where numerous operas from around country as well as operas identified as "model plays" were performed. Opera was modified, and
Model opera with political message was created. The first Model Opera was
Taking Tiger Mountain by Strategy. By the
Cultural Revolution, Model opera had monopolized the theatre. However, after the Cultural Revolution, traditional forms were revived and with fewer restrictions, and new plays influenced by Western theatre also began to be staged. ==Modern Chinese theatre==