Neolithic pottery Early forms of art in China are found in the Neolithic
Yangshao culture, which dates back to the 6th millennium BC. Archeological findings such as those at the
Banpo have revealed that the Yangshao made pottery; early
ceramics were unpainted and most often cord-marked. The first decorations were fish, human faces, and plants, images familiar to the Yangshao people in their agriculturally-oriented lifestyles. These eventually evolved into more colorful, intricate, and abstract designs that featured geometric and astronomy-inspired patterns. Unlike the later
Longshan culture, the Yangshao culture did not use
pottery wheels in pottery making; rather, they relied on manual techniques like
coiling. However, excavations of pieces featuring patterns with parallel lines and grids during the late phase of the Yangshao culture suggest that a spinning method was used to paint the pottery. Many of the symbols and designs painted held religious and spiritual significance. Patterns featuring frogs and fish represented prosperity, and patterns featuring birds and water represented a respect for nature. Scenes from daily life involving the community, like dances and hunts, likely had significance within Yangshao rituals and ceremonies. File:PeiligangCulture-RedPotWithTwoEars-ShanghaiMuseum-May27-08.jpg|A red pot with two "ears"; by
Peiligang culture; 6000–5200 BC; ceramic;
Shanghai Museum File:半山类型圆点纹彩陶壶.jpg|Dotted pottery pot, semi-mountain type; by
Yangshao culture from China; 2700–2300 BCE;
Gansu Provincial Museum (
Lanzhou) File:MET DP257874.jpg|Jar; 2650–2350 BC; earthenware with painted decoration; height: 34 cm;
Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) File:Painted Pottery Pot with Geometric Lattice Pattern.jpg|Pot with geometric lattice pattern; by
Majiayao culture; 2600–2300 BC; painted potter; Shanghai Museum
Jade culture The Liangzhu culture was the last Neolithic Jade culture in the
Yangtze River Delta and was spaced over a period of about 1,300 years. The Jade from this culture is characterized by finely worked, large ritual jades such as
Cong cylinders,
Bi discs, Yue axes and also pendants and decorations in the form of chiseled open-work plaques, plates and representations of small birds, turtles and fish. The Liangzhu Jade has a white, milky bone-like aspect due to its
tremolite rock origin and influence of water-based fluids at the burial sites. File:Chinese - Cong - Walters 42340 - Profile.jpg|
Cong, 3rd millennium BCE File:Ring with coiled dragon design.jpg|Two-dragon ring, early Shang dynasty (2nd millennium BCE) File:Dinastia zhou occ.le, drago decorativo in giada, 770-256 ac. ca..JPG|Jade dragon,
Western Zhou File:Earliest Chinese Iron Sword.JPG|Rusted Zhou-era
Jian with a jade hilt, c.9th century BCE File:Hongshan Culture Jade Humanoid Figure.jpg|Jade humanoid,
Hongshan culture (4700–2900 BCE).
Bronze casting (New York City) The
Bronze Age in China began with the
Xia dynasty. Examples from this period have been recovered from ruins of the
Erlitou culture, in Shanxi, and include complex but unadorned utilitarian objects. In the following
Shang dynasty more elaborate objects, including many ritual vessels, were crafted. The Shang are remembered for their bronze casting, noted for its clarity of detail. Shang bronzesmiths usually worked in foundries outside the cities to make ritual vessels, and sometimes weapons and chariot fittings as well. The bronze vessels were receptacles for storing or serving various solids and liquids used in the performance of sacred ceremonies. Some forms such as the
ku and
jue can be very graceful, but the most powerful pieces are the
ding, sometimes described as having an "air of ferocious majesty". It is typical of the developed Shang style that all available space is decorated, most often with stylized forms of real and imaginary animals. The most common motif is the
taotie, which shows a mythological being presented frontally as though squashed onto a horizontal plane to form a symmetrical design. The early significance of
taotie is not clear, but myths about it existed around the late
Zhou dynasty. It was considered to be variously a covetous man banished to guard a corner of heaven against evil monsters; or a monster equipped with only a head which tries to devour men but hurts only itself. The function and appearance of bronzes changed gradually from the Shang to the Zhou. They shifted from being used in religious rites to more practical purposes. By the
Warring States period, bronze vessels had become objects of aesthetic enjoyment. Some were decorated with social scenes, such as from a banquet or hunt; whilst others displayed abstract patterns inlaid with gold, silver, or precious and semiprecious stones. Bronze artifacts also have significant meaning and roles in the Han dynasty as well. People used them for funerary purposes which reflect the aesthetic and artistic qualities of the Han dynasty. Many bronze vessels excavated from tombs in Jiangsu Province, China, have various shapes like Ding, Hu, and Xun which represent traditional Chinese aesthete. File:Da Ke ding.jpg|
Da Ke ding; Western Zhou dynasty; height: , width: (bore) & (inside diameter); discovered in 1890, at Famen Town (
Fufeng County, Shaanxi);
Shanghai Museum File:Dinastia zhou occidentale, campana (lai zhong), da meixian (shaanxi), 800-700 ac ca.jpg|Bell (lai zhong); 800–700 BC (Western Zhou dynasty); 70.3 × 37 × 26.6 cm (27 × 14 × 10 in.); from Meixian, Shaanxi);
Cleveland Museum of Art. In ancient China music and ritual had political significance and were linked inseparably to the power of states File:Bronze jin from Henan.jpg|A bronze stand for ceremonial vessels; excavated from the tomb of the son of
King Zhuang of Chu (r. 613–591 BCE) File:Bronze Shi (wild boar) Zun, Shang dynasty, Hunan Museum, 2018070601.jpg|
Shi zun; 1600–1046 BC; height: ; discovered at Chuanxingshan (
Xiangtan County, Hunan); Hunan Museum File:La Tigresse, bronze vessel to preserve drink. Hunan, 11th BC. Cernuschi museum.jpg|
Shang bronze vessel,
2nd millennium BC Zhou dynasty ( – 256 BCE) During the Zhou period, few sculptures, especially sculptures of human or animal form, are recorded in the extant archaeology, and there does not appear to have been much of a sculptural tradition. Among the very few such depictions known in China before that date: four wooden figurines from Liangdaicun (梁帶村) in Hancheng (韓城),
Shaanxi, possibly dating to the 9th century BCE; two wooden human figurines of foreigners possibly representing sedan chair bearers from a
Qin state tomb in Longxian (隴縣), Shaanxi, from about 700 BCE; and more numerous statuettes from around 5th century bronze musicians in a miniature house from Shaoxing (紹興) in
Zhejiang; a 4th-century human-shaped lamp stand from Pingshan (平山) county royal tomb,
Hebei. The
Taerpo horserider is a Zhou-era
Warrior-State Qin terracotta figurine from a tomb in the Taerpo cemetery (塔兒坡墓) near
Xianyang in
Shaanxi, dated to the 4th–3rd century BCE. Another nearly-identical statuette is known, from the same tomb. Small holes in his hands suggest that he was originally holding reins in one hand, and a weapon in the other. File:20090822 Shanghai Museum 3284.jpg|
Spring and Autumn period ox-shaped vessel, 6th century BCE File:Changshadragon.jpg|
Silk painting depicting a man riding a dragon, 4th century BCE File:Standing deer (2), Western Zhou, 11-9th century BCE.jpg|Western Zhou, 11-9th century BCE File:Gold sword hilt Eastern Zhou BM.jpg|Gold sword hilt, Eastern Zhou File:Silver belt buckle with inlaid gold and jade animal head, NMC.jpg|Silver belt buckle with inlaid gold and jade, Warring States, c. 4th century BCE File:Bronze dui vessel with inlaid geometric cloud pattern.JPG| Bronze
dui vessel with inlaid geometric cloud pattern, Eastern Zhou
Chu and Southern culture (c. 1030 BC – 223 BC) A rich source of art in early China was the state of
Chu, which developed in the Yangtze River valley. Excavations of Chu tombs have found painted wooden sculptures, jade disks, glass beads, musical instruments, and an assortment of
lacquerware. Many of the lacquer objects are finely painted, red on black or black on red. A site in
Changsha, Hunan province, has revealed some of the oldest paintings on silk discovered to date. File:20230208 Painted lacquer box in the shape of two rear-to-rear pigs.jpg|Painted lacquer box in the shape of 2 rear-to-rear pigs. File:虎座鸟架鼓（九连墩）.jpg|The
Fenghuang was a popular motif in Chu art, whereas the dragon was more popular in the other states to its north. File:Warring States Lacquered Dou (9979386085).jpg|Lacquer
dou with phoenix base.
Early imperial China (221 BCE – 220 CE) Qin art The
Terracotta Army, inside the Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor, consists of more than 7,000 life-size tomb
terracotta figures of warriors and horses buried with the self-proclaimed first
Emperor of China Qin Shi Huang in 210–209 BC. The figures were painted before being placed into the vault. The original colors were visible when the pieces were first unearthed. However, exposure to air caused the pigments to fade, so today the unearthed figures appear terracotta in color. The figures are in several poses including standing infantry and kneeling archers, as well as charioteers with horses. Each figure's head appears to be unique, showing a variety of facial features and expressions as well as hair styles. The spectacular realism displayed by the sculptures is an evidence of the advancement of art during the Qin dynasty. It is without precedent in the historical record of art in East Asia.
Han art . After the Qin period, funeral figurines were much smaller, on average in height. Similar armies were found in
Han Yang Ling, the tomb complex of
Emperor Jing of Han (
r. 157 – 141 BCE) and his wife
Empress Wang Zhi (d. 126 BCE), with over 40,000 miniature pottery figures.During the Qin dynasty, Chinese font, measurement systems, currency were all standardized in order to bring further unification.
The Great Wall of China was expanded as a defensive construction against the northern intruders. A scene of continuous depth recession is conveyed by the zigzag of lines representing roads and garden walls, giving the impression that one is looking down from the top of a hill. The word "mirror" means "to reflect" or "to look into" in Chinese, so bronze mirrors have been used as a trope for reflecting the reality. File:Green glazed pottery dog Eastern Han 25CE 220CE.jpg|Glazed pottery dog, with collar patterned onto the surface; Eastern Han, 1st century CE. File:Lidded Cosmetic Box (Lian) with Scrolling Clouds and Supernatural Creatures LACMA AC1997.50.1.1-.2.jpg|Han dynasty lacquerwares were famed for their intricate and elegant designs. File:Mawangdui Han Second Coffin from Tomb -1 (10113243533).jpg|Abstract yet intricate patterns were found on coffins of lady
Xin Zhui (217 BC–168 BC) File:Mawangdui Figures of Musicians (10112575404).jpg|Musicians playing
guzheng and
sheng, 2nd century BCE File:Eastern han husband and wife banquet mural BM2 Zhucun Luoyang 洛阳朱村东汉墓BM2夫妇宴饮图.jpg|Han couple banquet together, from
Luoyang c. 220 CE File:China.Terracotta statues007.jpg|A female servant and a male advisor in Han
shenyi, terracotta figurines from Western Han. File:Bronze Chimera, Eastern Han Dynasty.jpg|Bronze statuette of a
qilin, 1st century AD File:Jade Drinking Vessel at Nanyue King Museum.jpg|Jade drinking vessel from Nannie, 1st century BCE File:Confucius, fresco from a Western Han tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province, China.jpg|Western Han tomb fresco depicting the philosopher
Confucius; 202 BCE9 CE; from
Dongping County, Shandong File:Eastern Han Dynasty tomb fresco of chariots, horses, and men, Luoyang 2.jpg|A section of an
Eastern Han (25–220 AD) fresco of 9 chariots, 50 horses, and over 70 men, from a tomb in
Luoyang, China File:Gansu Museum 2007 257.jpg|
Flying Horse of Gansu. File:Dahuting mural, Eastern Han Dynasty.jpg|Mural of the Dahuting Tomb () of the late Eastern Han, located in
Zhengzhou File:Boucle Han Chine Guimet 2910.jpg|A golden belt buckle with dragon motif, Western Han File:Dahuting tomb mural showing hanfu dress, Eastern Han Dynasty.jpg|Mural of the Dahuting Tomb () of the late Eastern Han, located in Zhengzhou, Henan File:Woman with a mirror, China, unearthed at Songjialin, Pixian, Sichuan, Eastern Han dynasty, 25-220 AD, ceramic - Sichuan Provincial Museum - Chengdu, China - DSC04768.jpg|An Eastern Han
ceramic figurine of a seated woman with a
bronze mirror, unearthed from a tomb of Songjialin,
Pi County, Sichuan File:Silk from Mawangdui.jpg|Heaves of silk with all sorts of intricate designs were found at Mawangdui.
First monumental stone sculptures (117 BCE) 's Mausoleum, 117 BCE Terracotta statuettes had been known for a long time in China, but there are no known examples of monumental stone statuary before the stone sculptures at the Mausoleum of
Huo Qubing (140–117 BCE), a general of Emperor
Han Wudi who went to the western regions to fight the
Xiongnu. In literary sources, there is only a single 3rd–4th century CE record of a possible earlier example: two alleged monumental stone statues of
qilin (Chinese unicorns) said have been set up on top of the tomb of the First Emperor
Qin Shihuang. The most famous of Huo Qubing's statues is that of
a horse trampling a Xiongnu warrior. Following these early attempts, the usage of monumental stone statues would only develop from the end of the Western Han to the Eastern Han. Monumental stone statuary would become a major art form from the 4–6th centuries CE with the onset of monumental
Buddhist sculpture in China.
Period of division (220–581) Influence of Buddhism Buddhism arrived in China around the 1st century CE (although there are some traditions about a monk visiting China during
Asoka's reign), and through to the 8th century it became very active and creative in the development of Buddhist art, particularly in the area of statuary. Receiving this distant religion, China soon incorporated strong Chinese traits in its artistic expression. In the fifth to sixth century the
Northern dynasties, rather removed from the original sources of inspiration, tended to develop rather symbolic and abstract modes of representation, with schematic lines. Their style is also said to be solemn and majestic. The lack of corporeality of this art, and its distance from the original Buddhist objective of expressing the pure ideal of enlightenment in an accessible, realistic manner, progressively led to a research towards more naturalism and realism, leading to the expression of Tang Buddhist art. File:Mural Worshipping Bodhisattva.jpg|Mural from the
Mogao caves,
Western Wei, (535-556 A.D.) File:Dunhuang mural flying apsarasa.jpg|
Dunhuang mural, mid 6th century File:Sogdian whirl with large pipa.jpg|Buddhist cave art, a dancer spins while the orchestra plays. File:Vairocana, Fengxian Temple, Longmen Grottoes (10240207654).jpg| Vairocana,
Longmen Grottoes, 500-900AD File:FireLanceAndGrenade10thCenturyDunhuang.jpg|An illustration of Sakyamuni's temptation by Mara File:Grotta nr 158.JPG|Reclining Buddha, High Tang period
Calligraphy In ancient China, painting and
calligraphy were the most highly appreciated arts in court circles and were produced almost exclusively by amateurs, aristocrats and scholar-officials who alone had the leisure to perfect the technique and sensibility necessary for great brushwork. Calligraphy was thought to be the highest and purest form of painting. The implements were the brush, made of animal hair, and black ink made from pine soot and animal glue. Writing as well as painting was done on silk. But after the invention of paper in the 1st century, silk was gradually replaced by the new and cheaper material. Original writings by famous calligraphers have been greatly valued throughout China's history and are mounted on scrolls and hung on walls in the same way that paintings are.
Wang Xizhi was a famous Chinese calligrapher who lived in the 4th century AD. His most famous work is the
Lanting Xu, the preface to a collection of poems. The script was often celebrated as the high point of the
semi-cursive "Running Style" in the history of Chinese calligraphy.
Wei Shuo was a well-known calligrapher of the
Eastern Jin dynasty who established consequential rules about the
regular script. Her well-known works include
Famous Concubine Inscription (名姬帖 Ming Ji Tie) and ''The Inscription of Wei-shi He'nan'' (衛氏和南帖 Wei-shi He'nan Tie).
Painting Gu Kaizhi is a celebrated painter of ancient China born in
Wuxi. He wrote three books about painting theory:
On Painting (畫論),
Introduction of Famous Paintings of Wei and Jin Dynasties (魏晉名畫記) and
Painting Yuntai Mountain (畫雲臺山記). He wrote, "In figure paintings the clothes and the appearances were not very important. The eyes were the spirit and the decisive factor." Three of Gu's paintings still survive today:
Admonitions of the Instructress to the Court Ladies,
Nymph of the Luo River (洛神賦), and
Wise and Benevolent Women. There are other examples of Jin dynasty painting from tombs. This includes the
Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, painted on a brick wall of a tomb located near modern Nanjing and now found in the Shaanxi Provincial Museum. Each of the figures are labeled and shown either drinking, writing, or playing a musical instrument. Other tomb paintings also depict scenes of daily life, such as men plowing fields with teams of oxen. File:Funerary panels, from the tomb of Sima Jinlong, 484 CE. Datong, Shanxi Province.jpg|Funerary panels, from the tomb of
Sima Jinlong, 484 CE File:Riders on Horseback, Northern Qi Dynasty.jpg|A scene of two horseback riders from a wall painting in the tomb of Lou Rui at
Taiyuan, Shanxi,
Northern Qi dynasty (550–577) File:China ceramics lotus vessel.JPG|Lotus-patterned vase from
Northern Qi, 6th century CE File:Hangzhou Nansong Guanyao Bowuguan 20120518-08.jpg|Lion-shaped candle holder from Western Jin c. 4th century CE File:Buddhist paintings Yungang.jpg|
Northern Wei murals and painted figurines from the
Yungang Grottoes, dated 5th to 6th centuries. File:Datong 146.jpg File:Datong 145.jpg File:Yungang cave9 dougong.jpg
The Sui and Tang dynasties (581–960) .
Buddhist architecture and sculpture Following a transition under the
Sui dynasty, Buddhist sculpture of the
Tang evolved towards a markedly lifelike expression. As a consequence of the dynasty's openness to foreign trade and influences through the
Silk Road, Tang dynasty Buddhist sculpture assumed a rather classical form, inspired by the Greco-Buddhist art of Central Asia. However, foreign influences came to be negatively perceived towards the end of the Tang dynasty. In the year 845, the Tang emperor
Wuzong outlawed all "foreign" religions (including
Nestorian Christianity,
Zoroastrianism and Buddhism) in order to support indigenous
Taoism. He confiscated Buddhist possessions and forced the faith to go underground, therefore affecting the ulterior development of the religion and its arts in China. Glazed or painted
earthenware Tang dynasty tomb figures are famous, and well-represented in museums around the world. Most wooden Tang sculptures have not survived, though representations of the Tang international style can still be seen in
Nara, Japan. The longevity of stone sculpture has proved much greater. Some of the finest examples can be seen at
Longmen, near
Luoyang,
Yungang near
Datong, and
Bingling Temple in
Gansu. One of the most famous Buddhist
Chinese pagodas is the
Giant Wild Goose Pagoda, built in 652 AD. File:Anonymous-Bodhisattva Leading the Way.jpg|Tang dynasty painting from
Dunhuang. File:Mogao Cave 217 architecture 01.jpg|Fresco from
Dunhuang depicting typical Tang architecture File:Varjapani magao caves.jpg|Painting of Varjapani File:Freer SacklerDSCF8036.JPG|Central Asian influence can be seen in the shape of this cup.
Painting (962). Beginning in the
Tang dynasty (618–907), the primary subject matter of painting was the landscape, known as
shanshui (mountain water) painting. In these landscapes, usually monochromatic and sparse, the purpose was not to reproduce exactly the appearance of nature but rather to grasp an emotion or atmosphere so as to catch the "rhythm" of nature. Painting in the traditional style involved essentially the same techniques as calligraphy and was done with a brush dipped in black or colored ink; oils were not used. As with calligraphy, the most popular materials on which paintings were made were paper and silk. The finished works were then mounted on scrolls, which could be hung or rolled up. Traditional painting was also done in albums, on walls, lacquer work, and in other media. Dong Yuan was an active painter in the Southern Tang Kingdom. He was known for both figure and landscape paintings, and exemplified the elegant style which would become the standard for brush painting in China over the next 900 years. As with many artists in China, his profession was as an official where he studied the existing styles of Li Sixun and Wang Wei. However, he added to the number of techniques, including more sophisticated perspective, use of pointillism and crosshatching to build up vivid effect.
Zhan Ziqian was a painter during the Sui dynasty. His only painting in existence is
Strolling About In Spring arranged mountains perspectively. Because pure
landscape paintings are hardly seen in Europe until the 17th century,
Strolling About In Spring may well be the world's first landscape painting. (706–783 AD), Tang dynasty original.
The Song and Yuan dynasties (960–1368) Buddha'', by Zhang Shengwen, 1173–1176 AD,
Song dynasty period.
Song painting During the
Song dynasty (960–1279), landscapes of more subtle expression appeared; immeasurable distances were conveyed through the use of blurred outlines, mountain contours disappearing into the mist, and impressionistic treatment of natural phenomena. Emphasis was placed on the spiritual qualities of the painting and on the ability of the artist to reveal the inner harmony of man and nature, as perceived according to
Taoist and
Buddhist concepts.
Liang Kai was a Chinese painter who lived in the 13th century (Song dynasty). He called himself "Madman Liang", and he spent his life drinking and painting. Eventually, he retired and became a
Zen monk. Liang is credited with inventing the Zen school of Chinese art.
Wen Tong was a painter who lived in the 11th century. He was famous for
ink paintings of bamboo. He could hold two brushes in one hand and paint two different distanced bamboos simultaneously. He did not need to see the bamboo while he painted them because he had seen a lot of them.
Zhang Zeduan was a notable painter for his horizontal
Along the River During the Qingming Festival landscape and cityscape painting. It is considered one of China's most renowned paintings and has had many well-known remakes throughout Chinese history. Other famous paintings include
The Night Revels of Han Xizai, originally painted by the
Southern Tang artist
Gu Hongzhong in the 10th century, while the well-known version of his painting is a 12th-century remake of the Song dynasty. This is a large horizontal handscroll of a domestic scene showing men of the
gentry class being entertained by musicians and dancers while enjoying food, beverage, and wash basins provided by maidservants. In 2000, the modern artist
Wang Qingsong created a parody of this painting with a long, horizontal photograph of people in modern clothing making similar facial expressions, poses, and hand gestures as the original painting. 's Snowscape File:Chinesischer Maler des 11. Jahrhunderts (I) 001.jpg|
Buddhist Temple in the Mountains, 11th century, ink on silk,
Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City (Missouri). File:Guanyin 00.jpg|Seated
Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara (
Guanyin), wood and pigment, 11th century, Chinese
Northern Song dynasty,
St. Louis Art Museum File:Huang-Quan-Xie-sheng-zhen-qin-tu.jpg|
Almanac of birds and beasts, typical example of the
Gongbi styles popular during the Song File:Three Friends of Winter by Zhao Mengjian.jpg|
Three Friends of Winter depicting plum, pine and bamboo, still used for decoration during new year's by countries in the
sinosphere File:Guo Zhongshu-Traveling on the River in Snow.jpg|
Traveling on the River in Snow. Extremely intricate details give historians insight into
medieval Chinese shipbuilding. File:北宋 徽宗 竹禽圖 卷-Finches and bamboo MET DP151504.jpg|
Emperor Huizong of Song was a prolific painter File:Li Anzhong's Bird on a Branch.gif|Li Anzhong's
Bird on a Branch; it has a circular shape because this was initially painted for a
circular fan. File:Loquats and Mountain Bird.jpg|
Loquats and a Mountain Bird,
Southern Song (1127–1279); small album leaf paintings like this were popular amongst
gentry and
scholar-officials. File:名绘集珍册 9 宋 李迪 春潮带雨.jpg|
The Spring Tide Brings Rain by
Li Di File:Ma Lin Guests.jpg|
Circular-fan painting by
Ma Lin File:Li Di-Shrike on a Winter Tree.jpg|
Shrike on a tree in winter; 1187 AD. File:Cui Bai - Wintry Sparrows.jpg|
Wintry Sparrows by
Cui Bai File:Fan Kuan - Travelers Among Mountains and Streams - Google Art Project.jpg|
Travelers among Mountains and Streams (谿山行旅),
Fan Kuan (c. 960 – 1032) File:One Hundred Children Playing in the Spring.jpg|"One Hundred Children Playing in the Spring" by
Su Hanchen((1094–1172)) File:The Knickknack Peddler.jpg|The Knickknack Peddler by Su Hanchen; depictions of common life became a popular motif during the prosperous years of the Song dynasty
Yuan painting playing
cuju (i.e. Chinese football) with his prime minister
Zhao Pu (趙普) and other ministers, by the
Yuan dynasty artist
Qian Xuan (1235–1305) With the fall of the Song dynasty in 1279, and the subsequent dislocation caused by the establishment of the
Yuan dynasty by the
Mongol conquerors, many court and literary artists retreated from social life, and returned to nature, through landscape paintings, and by renewing the "blue and green" style of the Tang era.
Wang Meng was one such painter, and one of his most famous works is the
Forest Grotto.
Zhao Mengfu was a Chinese scholar, painter and calligrapher during the
Yuan dynasty. His rejection of the refined, gentle brushwork of his era in favor of the cruder style of the 8th century is considered to have brought about a revolution that created the modern Chinese landscape painting. There was also the vivid and detailed works of art by
Qian Xuan (1235–1305), who had served the Song court, and out of patriotism refused to serve the Mongols, instead turning to painting. He was also famous for reviving and reproducing a more Tang dynasty style of painting. The later Yuan dynasty is characterized by the work of the so-called "Four Great Masters". The most notable of these was
Huang Gongwang (1269–1354) whose cool and restrained landscapes were admired by contemporaries, and by the Chinese literati painters of later centuries. Another of great influence was
Ni Zan (1301–1374), who frequently arranged his compositions with a strong and distinct foreground and background, but left the middle-ground as an empty expanse. This scheme was frequently to be adopted by later
Ming and
Qing dynasty painters.
Dong Qichang (1555–1636) further influenced
East Asian art history by absorbing
Chan Buddhism ideas and putting forward the "Southern and Northern Schools" theory. European culture began to make an impact on Chinese art during this period. The Jesuit priest
Matteo Ricci visited Nanjing with many Western artworks, which were influential in showing different techniques of perspective and shading. File:Bian Jingzhao-Birds Flocking at Flowers and Bamboo.jpg|
Bian Jingzhao's intricate
Gongbi took after the styles of Song, whilst incorporating other artistic styles File:Peach Festival of the Queen Mother of the West, Freer Gallery of Art.jpg|Peach Festival of the Queen Mother of the West, early 17th century, Ming dynasty. File:Bian Jingzhao-Snow Plum and Twin Cranes.jpg|
Bian Jingzhao's
Snow Plum and Twin Cranes incorporating the
Gonbi style, 15th century. File:Emperor Shenzong and Empress Xiaoduan.jpg|Emperor Shenzong and Empress Xiaoduan File:Paintings from Baoning Temple, No.R31.jpg|
Shuilu ritual painting of
Canshen and the
Five Demons of Pestilence, Baoning Temple, Ming dynasty File:Chen Hongshou, leaf album painting.jpg|
Magnolia and Erect Rock (玉堂柱石圖) File:Portrait assis de l'empereur Ming Xuanzong.jpg|Ming portraiture also took after Song styles, however it shed its adherence to plainness and austerity. File:Detail of The Emperor's Approach, Xuande period.jpg|Detail of ''The Emperor's Approach'' showing the
Wanli Emperor's royal carriage being pulled by elephants and escorted by cavalry (
full panoramic painting here)
Early Qing painting The early Qing dynasty developed in two main strands: the Orthodox school, and the Individualist painters, both of which followed the theories of Dong Qichang, but emphasizing very different aspects. Court painting of the Qing dynasty was also greatly influenced by Western artists such as
Jean Denis Attiret (1702–1768) and
Giuseppe Castiglione (1688–1766). The Individualist painters included
Bada Shanren (1626–1705) and
Shitao (1641–1707). They drew more from the revolutionary ideas of transcending the tradition to achieve an original individualistic styles; in this way they were more faithfully following the way of Dong Qichang than the Orthodox school (who were his official direct followers.) Painters outside of the literati-scholar and aristocratic traditions also gained renown, with some artists creating paintings to sell for money. These included
Ma Quan (late 17th–18th century), who depicted common flowers, birds, and insects that were not typical subject matter among scholars. Such painters were, however, not separated from formal schools of painting, but were usually well-versed in artistic styles and techniques. Ma Quan, for example, modelled her brushwork on Song dynasty examples. Simultaneously, the boneless technique (), thought to have originated as a preparatory step when painting gold-line images during the Tang, was continued by painters like
Yun Shouping (1633–1690) and his descendant
Yun Bing. As the techniques of color printing were perfected, illustrated manuals on the art of painting began to be published.
Jieziyuan Huazhuan (Manual of the Mustard Seed Garden), a five-volume work first published in 1679, has been in use as a technical textbook for artists and students ever since. File:Portraits of the Yongzheng Emperor Enjoying Himself during the 8th lunar month.jpg|
The Yongzheng Emperor Enjoying Himself During the 8th Lunar Month, by anonymous court artists, 1723–1735 AD,
Palace Museum, Beijing, showing the use of
linear perspective. File:MET DP153920.jpg|
Album Leaf,
Yun Bing, 17th century,
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, showing the "boneless" technique. File:K'un-ts'an 001.jpg|Chinese painting from 1664 by Qing dynasty painter
Kun Can Late Qing art Nianhua were a form of colored woodblock prints in China, depicting images for decoration during the
Chinese New Year. In the 19th century Nianhua were used as news mediums.
Shanghai School The
Shanghai School is a very important Chinese school of traditional arts during the
Qing dynasty and the 20th century. Under efforts of masters from this school, traditional Chinese art reached another climax and continued to the present in forms of Chinese painting (中國畫), or
guohua (國畫) for short. The Shanghai School challenged and broke the literati tradition of Chinese art, while also paying technical homage to the ancient masters and improving on existing traditional techniques. Members of this school were themselves educated literati who had come to question their very status and the purpose of art, and had anticipated the impending modernization of Chinese society. In an era of rapid social change, works from the Shanghai School were widely innovative and diverse, and often contained thoughtful yet subtle social commentary. The best known figures from this school are
Ren Xiong,
Ren Bonian,
Zhao Zhiqian,
Wu Changshuo,
Sha Menghai,
Pan Tianshou,
Fu Baoshi,
He Tianjian, and
Xie Zhiliu. Other well-known painters include
Wang Zhen,
Zhang Xiong, and
Yang Borun. == Painting ==