The history of jewellery is long and goes back many years, with many different uses among different cultures. It has endured for thousands of years and has provided various insights into how ancient cultures worked.
Prehistory The earliest known Jewellery was actually created not by modern humans (
Homo sapiens) but by
hominin precursors of modern humans living in Europe and North Africa. The
National Jewellery Museum of Morocco in Rabat displays a reproduction of
perforated shell beads. The original beads are the oldest known pieces of such
artefacts dated to about 142,000 years. They were found in 2019 by archaeologists in the Bizmoune cave near
Essaouira, Morocco, and show perforations indicating purposeful processing that may have been a token of identity. Other perforated beads made from small seashells by
Neanderthals have been found dating to 115,000 years ago in the Cueva de los Aviones, a cave along the southeast coast of Spain. Later in Kenya, at
Enkapune Ya Muto, beads made from perforated
ostrich eggshells have been dated to more than 40,000 years ago. In Russia, a stone bracelet and marble ring are attributed to a similar age. Later, the
European early modern humans had crude
necklaces and
bracelets of bone, teeth, berries, and stone hung on pieces of string or animal
sinew, or pieces of carved bone used to secure clothing together. In some cases, jewellery had shell or
mother-of-pearl pieces. A decorated engraved pendant (the
Star Carr Pendant) dating to around 11,000 BC, and thought to be the oldest Mesolithic art in Britain, was found at the site of
Star Carr in
North Yorkshire in 2015. In southern
Russia, carved bracelets made of
mammoth tusk have been found. The
Venus of Hohle Fels features a perforation at the top, showing that it was intended to be worn as a
pendant. Around seven thousand years ago, the first sign of
copper jewellery was seen. String of beads MET 99.4.54.jpg|String of beads; 3650–3100 BC;
lapis lazuli (the blue beads) and
travertine (the white beads) (Egyptian
alabaster); length: ; by
Naqada II or
Naqada III cultures;
Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) String of beads MET 99.4.4 01-19-01.jpg|String of beads; 3300–3100 BC;
carnelian,
garnet, quartz and glazed
steatite; length: ; by
Naqada III culture Metropolitan Museum of Art GNM - Armberge.jpg|Armlet with sun symbol; 16th–13th century BC (late
Bronze Age); bronze;
German National Museum (
Nuremberg) Carnelian jewellery from Saruq Al Hadid.jpg|Necklace; probably 2600–1300 BC;
carnelian, bone and stone; from
Saruq Al Hadid (the
United Arab Emirates)
Africa Egypt The first signs of established jewellery making in
Ancient Egypt was around 3,000–5,000 years ago. The
Egyptians preferred the luxury, rarity, and workability of
gold over other metals. In
Predynastic Egypt jewellery soon began to symbolise political and religious power in the community. Although it was worn by wealthy Egyptians in life, it was also worn by them in death, with jewellery commonly placed among
grave goods. In conjunction with gold jewellery, Egyptians used coloured
glass, along with semi-precious gems. The colour of the jewellery had significance. Green, for example, symbolised fertility.
Lapis lazuli and silver had to be imported from beyond the country's borders. Egyptian designs were most common in
Phoenician jewellery. Also, ancient
Turkish designs found in
Persian jewellery suggest that trade between the Middle East and
Europe was not uncommon. Women wore elaborate gold and silver pieces that were used in ceremonies.
Europe and the Middle East The first gold jewellery from Bulgaria The oldest gold in the world is dating from 4,600 BC to 4,200 BC and was discovered in Europe, at the site of
Varna Necropolis, near the
Black Sea coast in
Bulgaria.
Mesopotamia ; length: ; from the Royal Cemetery at Ur;
Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) By approximately 5,000 years ago, jewellery-making had become a significant craft in the cities of
Mesopotamia. The most significant archaeological evidence comes from the
Royal Cemetery of Ur, where hundreds of burials dating 2900–2300 BC were unearthed; tombs such as that of
Puabi contained a multitude of artefacts in gold, silver, and semi-precious stones, such as
lapis lazuli crowns embellished with gold figurines, close-fitting collar necklaces, and jewel-headed pins. In
Assyria, men and women both wore extensive amounts of jewellery, including
amulets, ankle bracelets, heavy multi-strand necklaces, and
cylinder seals. Jewellery in Mesopotamia tended to be manufactured from thin metal leaf and was set with large numbers of brightly coloured stones (chiefly agate, lapis, carnelian, and jasper). Favoured shapes included leaves, spirals, cones, and bunches of grapes. Jewellers created works both for human use and for adorning statues and idols. They employed a wide variety of sophisticated metalworking techniques, such as
cloisonné,
engraving, fine
granulation, and
filigree. Extensive and meticulously maintained records pertaining to the trade and manufacture of jewellery have also been unearthed throughout Mesopotamian archaeological sites. One record in the
Mari royal archives, for example, gives the composition of various items of jewellery: Necklace beads MET DP104225.jpg|Sumerian necklace beads; 2600–2500 BC; gold and lapis lazuli; length: ; Metropolitan Museum of Art Necklace MET an33.35.47.jpg|Necklace; 2600–2500 BC; gold and
lapis lazuli; length: ;
Royal Cemetery at Ur (Iraq); Metropolitan Museum of Art Earrings from Shulgi.JPG|Pair of earrings with cuneiform inscriptions, 2093–2046 BC; gold;
Sulaymaniyah Museum (
Sulaymaniyah, Iraq) Reconstructed sumerian headgear necklaces british museum.JPG|Sumerian necklaces and headgear discovered in the royal (and individual) graves of the Royal Cemetery at Ur, showing the way they may have been worn, in
British Museum (London)
Greece (Greece));
National Archaeological Museum (
Athens) The Greeks started using gold and gems in jewellery in 1600 BC, although beads shaped as shells and animals were produced widely in earlier times. Around 1500 BC, the main techniques of working gold in Greece included casting, twisting bars, and making wire. Many of these sophisticated techniques were popular in the Mycenaean period, but unfortunately this skill was lost at the end of the Bronze Age. The forms and shapes of jewellery in ancient Greece such as the armring (13th century BC), brooch (10th century BC) and pins (7th century BC), have varied widely since the Bronze Age as well. Other forms of jewellery include wreaths, earrings, necklace and bracelets. A good example of the high quality that gold working techniques could achieve in Greece is the 'Gold Olive Wreath' (4th century BC), which is modelled on the type of wreath given as a prize for winners in athletic competitions like the Olympic Games. Jewellery dating from 600 to 475 BC is not well represented in the archaeological record, but after the Persian wars the quantity of jewellery again became more plentiful. One particularly popular type of design at this time was a bracelet decorated with snake and animal-heads. Because these bracelets used considerably more metal, many examples were made from bronze. By 300 BC, the Greeks had mastered making coloured jewellery and using
amethysts,
pearl, and
emeralds. Also, the first signs of
cameos appeared, with the Greeks creating them from
Indian
Sardonyx, a striped brown pink and cream
agate stone. Greek jewellery was often simpler than in other cultures, with simple designs and workmanship. However, as time progressed, the designs grew in complexity and different materials were soon used. Jewellery in
Greece was hardly worn and was mostly used for public appearances or on special occasions. It was frequently given as a gift and was predominantly worn by women to show their wealth, social status, and beauty. The jewellery was often supposed to give the wearer protection from the "
evil eye" or endowed the owner with
supernatural powers, while others had a religious symbolism. Older pieces of jewellery that have been found were dedicated to the Gods. They worked two styles of pieces: cast pieces and pieces hammered out of sheet metal. Fewer pieces of cast jewellery have been recovered. It was made by casting the metal onto two stone or clay moulds. The two-halves were then joined, and
wax, followed by molten metal, was placed in the centre. This technique had been practised since the late
Bronze Age. The more common form of jewellery was the hammered sheet type. Sheets of metal would be hammered to thickness and then soldered together. The inside of the two sheets would be filled with wax or another liquid to preserve the metal work. Different techniques, such as using a stamp or engraving, were then used to create motifs on the jewellery. Jewels may then be added to hollows or glass poured into special cavities on the surface. The Greeks took much of their designs from outer origins, such as Asia, when
Alexander the Great conquered part of it. In earlier designs, other European influences can also be detected. When Roman rule came to Greece, no change in jewellery designs was detected. However, by 27 BC, Greek designs were heavily influenced by the Roman culture. That is not to say that indigenous design did not thrive. Numerous
polychrome butterfly pendants on silver foxtail chains, dating from the 1st century, have been found near
Olbia, with only one example ever found anywhere else. File:Bee pendant, gold ornament, Chrysolakos necropolis near Malia, 1800-1700 BC, AMH, 144879.jpg|The
Bee Pendant, an iconic Minoan jewel; 1700–1600 BC; gold; width: ; from Chrysolakkos (gold pit) complex at
Malia;
Archaeological Museum of Heraklion (
Heraklion, Greece) File:Gilt terracotta ornaments from a necklace MET DP145718.jpg|Mycenaean necklace; 1400–1050 BC; gilded terracotta; diameter of the rosettes: , with variations of circa , length of the pendant ;
Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) File:Gold ring set with an emerald MET DT283.jpg|The Ganymede Jewellery; circa 300 BC; gold; various dimensions; provenance unknown (said to have been found near Thessaloniki, Greece); Metropolitan Museum of Art File:Greece, 2nd Century BC - Necklace - 1928.234 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|Necklace; circa 200 BC; gold,
moonstone,
garnet,
emerald,
cornelian,
baroque pearl and banded
agate; overall: ;
Cleveland Museum of Art (
Cleveland)
Etruscan Gorgons, pomegranates, acorns, lotus flowers and palms were a clear indicator of Greek influence in Etruscan jewellery. The modelling of heads, which was a typical practice from the Greek severe period, was a technique that spread throughout the Etruscan territory. An even clearer evidence of new influences is the shape introduced in the Orientalising era: The Bullae. A pear-shaped vessel used to hold perfume. Its surface was usually decorated with repoussé and engraved symbolic figures. Much of the jewellery found was not
worn by Etruscans, but were made to accompany them in the after world. Most, if not all, techniques of Etruscan goldsmiths were not invented by them as they are dated to the third millennium BC. Set of jewelry MET DP122702.jpg|The
Vulci set of jewellery; early 5th century; gold, glass, rock crystal,
agate and
carnelian; various dimensions;
Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) Earring in the form of a dolphin MET SF43119.jpg|Earring in the form of a dolphin; 5th century BC; gold; ; Metropolitan Museum of Art Etruscan - Bulla with Daedalus and Icarus - Walters 57371 - Side A.jpg|Bulla with
Daedalus and
Icarus; 5th century BC; gold; ;
Walters Art Museum (
Baltimore) Earring MET sf9515205.jpg|Earring; gold and silver; ; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Rome |thumb|left|upright|The
Great Cameo of France; second quarter of the 1st century AD; five-layered
sardonyx; ;
Cabinet des médailles (Paris) Although jewellery work was abundantly diverse in earlier times, especially among the tribes such as the
Celts, when the Romans conquered most of Europe, jewellery was changed as smaller factions developed the
Roman designs. The most common artefact of early Rome was the
brooch, which was used to secure clothing together. The Romans used a diverse range of materials for their jewellery from their extensive resources across the continent. Although they used gold, they sometimes used bronze or bone, and in earlier times, glass beads and pearl. As early as 2,000 years ago, they imported
Sri Lankan
sapphires and Indian diamonds and used emeralds and
amber in their jewellery. In Roman-ruled
England, fossilised
wood called
jet from Northern England was often carved into pieces of jewellery. The early Italians worked in crude gold and created clasps, necklaces, earrings, and bracelets. They also produced larger
pendants that could be filled with
perfume. Like the Greeks, often the purpose of Roman jewellery was to ward off the "evil eye" given by other people. Although women wore a vast array of jewellery, men often only wore a finger
ring. Although they were expected to wear at least one ring, some Roman men wore a ring on every finger, while others wore none. Roman men and women wore rings with an
engraved gem on it that was used with wax to seal documents, a practice that continued into
medieval times when
kings and noblemen used the same method. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the jewellery designs were absorbed by neighbouring countries and tribes. The
Torc was common throughout Europe as a symbol of status and power. By the 8th century, jewelled weaponry was common for men, while other jewellery (with the exception of signet rings) seemed to become the domain of women. Grave goods found in a 6th–7th century burial near
Chalon-sur-Saône are illustrative. A young girl was buried with: 2 silver
fibulae, a necklace (with coins), bracelet, gold earrings, a pair of hair-pins, comb, and buckle. The
Celts specialised in continuous patterns and designs, while Merovingian designs are best known for stylised animal figures. They were not the only groups known for high quality work. Note the Visigoth work shown here, and the numerous decorative objects found at the
Anglo-Saxon Ship burial at
Sutton Hoo Suffolk,
England are a particularly well-known example. The Eastern successor of the Roman Empire, the
Byzantine Empire, continued many of the methods of the Romans, though religious themes came to predominate. Unlike the Romans, the Franks, and the Celts, however, Byzantium used light-weight gold leaf rather than solid gold, and more emphasis was placed on stones and gems. As in the West, Byzantine jewellery was worn by wealthier females, with male jewellery apparently restricted to signet rings. Woman's jewellery had some peculiarities like
kolts that decorated
headband. Like other contemporary cultures, jewellery was commonly buried with its owner. Fíbulas (24100425814).jpg|The
Eagle-shaped fibulae of Alovera; 5th century; gold, bronze and glass (imitation of garnet); height: , width: ; from
Guadalajara (
Spain);
National Archaeological Museum (
Madrid, Spain) Sutton.Hoo.ShoulderClasp2.RobRoy.jpg|Shoulder-clasps from
Sutton Hoo; early 7th century; gold, glass and
garnet; length: ;
British Museum (London) Byzantium, early Byzantine period, 7th century - Earring (one of a pair) - 1947.178.b - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|Pair of Byzantine earrings; 7th century; gold, pearls, glass and
emeralds; ;
Cleveland Museum of Art (
Cleveland) Temple Pendant with Two Birds Flanking a Tree of Life (front) and Geometric and Vegetal Motifs (back) MET sf17-190-684s1.jpg|Front of a temple pendant with two birds flanking a
tree of life; 11th–12th century;
cloisonné enamel and gold; overall: ; made in
Kyiv (
Ukraine);
Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
Renaissance ; 16th century;
sardonyx;
Cabinet des Médailles (Paris) The
Renaissance and exploration both had significant impacts on the development of jewellery in Europe. By the 17th century, increasing exploration and trade led to increased availability of a wide variety of gemstones as well as exposure to the art of other cultures. Whereas prior to this the working of gold and precious metal had been at the forefront of jewellery, this period saw increasing dominance of gemstones and their settings. An example of this is the
Cheapside Hoard, the stock of a jeweller hidden in
London during the
Commonwealth period and not found again until 1912. It contained Colombian
emerald,
topaz,
amazonite from Brazil,
spinel,
iolite, and
chrysoberyl from Sri Lanka,
ruby from India, Afghan
lapis lazuli,
Persian turquoise, Red Sea
peridot, as well as Bohemian and Hungarian
opal,
garnet, and
amethyst. Large stones were frequently set in box-bezels on enamelled rings. Notable among merchants of the period was
Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, who brought the precursor stone of the
Hope Diamond to France in the 1660s. When
Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned as Emperor of the French in 1804, he revived the style and grandeur of jewellery and fashion in France. Under Napoleon's rule, jewellers introduced
parures, suites of matching jewellery, such as a diamond
tiara, diamond
earrings, diamond rings, a diamond brooch, and a diamond necklace. Both of Napoleon's wives had beautiful sets such as these and wore them regularly. Another fashion trend resurrected by Napoleon was the
cameo. Soon after his cameo decorated crown was seen, cameos were highly sought. The period also saw the early stages of
costume jewellery, with
fish scale covered glass beads in place of
pearls or
conch shell cameos instead of stone cameos. New terms were coined to differentiate the arts: jewellers who worked in cheaper materials were called
bijoutiers, while jewellers who worked with expensive materials were called
joailliers, a practice which continues to this day.
Romanticism (
Cleveland) Starting in the late 18th century,
Romanticism had a profound impact on the development of western jewellery. Perhaps the most significant influences were the public's fascination with the treasures being discovered through the birth of modern
archaeology and a fascination with Medieval and Renaissance art. Changing social conditions and the onset of the
Industrial Revolution also led to growth of a middle class that wanted and could afford jewellery. As a result, the use of industrial processes, cheaper alloys, and stone substitutes led to the development of paste or
costume jewellery. Distinguished goldsmiths continued to flourish, however, as wealthier patrons sought to ensure that what they wore still stood apart from the jewellery of the masses, not only through use of precious metals and stones but also though superior artistic and technical work. One such artist was the French goldsmith
François-Désiré Froment-Meurice. A category unique to this period and quite appropriate to the philosophy of romanticism was
mourning jewellery. It originated in England, where
Queen Victoria was often seen wearing
jet jewellery after the death of
Prince Albert, and it allowed the wearer to continue wearing jewellery while expressing a state of mourning at the death of a loved one. Perhaps the grand finalé – and an appropriate transition to the following period – were the masterful creations of the Russian artist
Peter Carl Fabergé, working for the Imperial Russian court, whose
Fabergé eggs and jewellery pieces are still considered as the epitome of the goldsmith's art.
18th century/Romanticism/Renaissance Many whimsical fashions were introduced in the extravagant eighteenth century. Cameos that were used in connection with jewellery were the attractive trinkets along with many of the small objects such as brooches, ear-rings and scarf-pins. Some of the necklets were made of several pieces joined with the gold chains were in and bracelets were also made sometimes to match the necklet and the brooch. At the end of the Century the jewellery with cut steel intermixed with large crystals was introduced by an Englishman, Matthew Boulton of Birmingham.
Art Nouveau ; –1900; gold,
enamels,
opals and diamonds;
Calouste Gulbenkian Museum (
Lisbon, Portugal) In the 1890s, jewellers began to explore the potential of the growing
Art Nouveau style and the closely related German
Jugendstil, British (and to some extent American)
Arts and Crafts Movement, Catalan
Modernisme, Austro-Hungarian
Sezession, Italian "Liberty", etc. Art Nouveau jewellery encompassed many distinct features including a focus on the female form and an emphasis on colour, most commonly rendered through the use of enamelling techniques including basse-taille, champleve, cloisonné, and
plique-à-jour. Motifs included orchids, irises, pansies, vines, swans, peacocks, snakes, dragonflies, mythological creatures, and the female silhouette.
René Lalique, working for the Paris shop of
Samuel Bing, was recognised by contemporaries as a leading figure in this trend. The
Darmstadt Artists' Colony and
Wiener Werkstätte provided perhaps the most significant input to the trend, while in Denmark
Georg Jensen, though best known for his
Silverware, also contributed significant pieces. In England,
Liberty & Co., (notably through the
Cymric designs of
Archibald Knox) and the British arts and crafts movement of
Charles Robert Ashbee contributed slightly more linear but still characteristic designs. The new style moved the focus of the jeweller's art from the setting of stones to the artistic design of the piece itself. Lalique's
dragonfly design is one of the best examples of this.
Enamels played a large role in technique, while sinuous organic lines are the most recognisable design feature. The end of
World War I once again changed public attitudes, and a more sober style developed. René lalique, pettorale libellula, in oro, smalti, crisoprazio, calcedonio, pietre lunari e diamanti, 1897-98 ca. 01.jpg|The
Dragonfly brooch; by
René Lalique; –1898; gold,
vitreous enamel,
chrysoprase,
chalcedony,
moonstone and diamond; height: , width: ;
Calouste Gulbenkian Museum (
Lisbon, Portugal) Necklace MET DT1423.jpg|Necklace; by René Lalique; 1897–1899; gold,
enamel,
opals and
amethysts; overall diameter: ;
Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) René lalique, pettorale serpenti, oro e smalti, 1898-99 ca.jpg|The
Snakes brooch; by René Lalique; gold and enamel; Calouste Gulbenkian Museum René lalique, pettine in corno, oro, smalti e brillanti, 1902 ca-V2.jpg|Hair ornament, an
Art Nouveau masterpiece; by René Lalique; ; gold, emeralds and diamonds;
Musée d'Orsay (Paris)
Art Deco Growing political tensions, the after-effects of the war, and a reaction against the perceived decadence of the turn of the 20th century led to simpler forms, combined with more effective manufacturing for mass production of high-quality jewellery. Covering the period of the 1920s and 1930s, the style has become popularly known as
Art Deco.
Walter Gropius and the German
Bauhaus movement, with their philosophy of "no barriers between artists and craftsmen" led to some interesting and stylistically simplified forms. Modern materials were also introduced: plastics and aluminium were first used in jewellery, and of note are the chromed pendants of Russian-born Bauhaus master
Naum Slutzky. Technical mastery became as valued as the material itself. In the West, this period saw the reinvention of granulation by the German
Elizabeth Treskow, although development of the re-invention has continued into the 1990s. It is based on the basic shapes.
Asia In Asia, the
Indian subcontinent has the longest continuous legacy of jewellery making anywhere, Asia was the first place where these jewellery were made in large numbers for the royals with a history of over 5,000 years. One of the first to start jewellery making were the peoples of the
Indus Valley civilisation, in what is now predominately modern-day Pakistan and part of northern and western India. Early jewellery making in
China started around the same period, but it became widespread with the spread of
Buddhism around 2,000 years ago.
China The Chinese used
silver in their jewellery more than gold. Blue
kingfisher feathers were tied onto early Chinese jewellery and later, blue gems and glass were incorporated into designs. However,
jade was preferred over any other stone. The Chinese revered jade because of the human-like qualities they assigned to it, such as its hardness, durability, and beauty. In China, the most uncommon piece of jewellery is the earring, which was worn neither by men nor women. In modern times, earrings are still considered culturally taboo for men in China—in fact, in 2019, the Chinese video streaming service
iQiyi began blurring the ears of male actors wearing earrings.
Amulets were common, often with a Chinese symbol or
dragon. Dragons, Chinese symbols, and
phoenixes were frequently depicted on jewellery designs. The Chinese often placed their jewellery in their graves. Most Chinese graves found by
archaeologists contain decorative jewellery. Clevelandart 1985.75.jpg|Fluted ring with a dragon head (huan); circa 475 BC; jade (
nephrite); overall: ;
Cleveland Museum of Art (
Cleveland) Jade ornament with grape design.jpg|Ornament with flowers and grapes design; 1115–1234; jade;
Shanghai Museum (China) Chinese Xin Shape Jewelry from Ming Dynasty Tombs.jpg|Xin 心 shaped ; 1368–1644; gold, ruby, pearl and other gemstones; about the size of an adult human's palm;
Dingling (
Beijing, China) MET 15 95 181j O1.jpg|Hat ornament; 18th–19th century; gold, gilded metal, kingfisher feathers, glass and semiprecious stones; various dimensions;
Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
Indian subcontinent beads (elaeo carpus seeds) and silver back plate on clasp; overall: ;
Los Angeles County Museum of Art (
Los Angeles, US) The
Indian subcontinent has a long jewellery history, which has gone through various changes via cultural influence and politics for more than 5,000–8,000 years. Because India had an abundant supply of precious metals and gems, it prospered financially through export and exchange with other countries. While European traditions were heavily influenced by waxing and waning empires, India enjoyed a continuous development of art forms for some 5,000 years. Other pieces that women frequently wore were thin bands of gold that would be worn on the forehead, earrings, primitive brooches,
chokers, and gold rings. Although women wore jewellery the most, some men in the Indus Valley wore beads. Small beads were often crafted to be placed in men and women's hair. The beads were about one millimetre long. A female skeleton (presently on display at the National Museum, New Delhi, India) wears a carlinean bangle (bracelet) on her left hand.
Kada is a special kind of bracelet and is widely popular in Indian culture. They symbolise animals such as peacock, elephant, etc. According to Hindu belief, gold and silver are considered as sacred metals. Gold is symbolic of the warm sun, while silver suggests the cool moon. Both are the quintessential metals of Indian jewellery. Pure gold does not oxidise or corrode with time, which is why Hindu tradition associates gold with immortality. Gold imagery occurs frequently in ancient Indian literature. In the Vedic Hindu belief of cosmological creation, the source of physical and spiritual human life originated in and evolved from a golden womb (hiranyagarbha) or egg (hiranyanda), a metaphor of the sun, whose light rises from the primordial waters. Jewellery had great status with India's royalty; it was so powerful that they established laws, limiting wearing of jewellery to royalty. Only royalty and a few others to whom they granted permission could wear gold ornaments on their feet. This would normally be considered breaking the appreciation of the sacred metals. Even though the majority of the Indian population wore jewellery,
Maharajas and people related to royalty had a deeper connection with jewellery. The
Maharaja's role was so important that the Hindu philosophers identified him as central to the smooth working of the world. He was considered as a divine being, a deity in human form, whose duty was to uphold and protect dharma, the moral order of the universe. The largest ever single order to
Cartier was made in 1925 by the
Indian royalty, the
Maharaja of Patiala, for the
Patiala Necklace and other worth .
Navaratna (nine gems) is a powerful jewel frequently worn by a
Maharaja (Emperor). It is an amulet, which comprises diamond, pearl, ruby, sapphire, emerald, topaz, cat's eye, coral, and hyacinth (red zircon). Each of these stones is associated with a celestial deity, representing the totality of the Hindu universe when all nine gems are together. The diamond is the most powerful gem among the nine stones. There were various cuts for the gemstone. Indian Kings bought gemstones privately from the sellers. Maharaja and other royal family members value gem as Hindu God. They exchanged gems with people to whom they were very close, especially the royal family members and other intimate allies.
India was the first country to mine
diamonds, with some mines dating back to 296 BC. India traded the diamonds, realising their valuable qualities. Historically, diamonds have been given to retain or regain a lover's or ruler's lost favour, as symbols of tribute, or as an expression of fidelity in exchange for concessions and protection. Mughal emperors and Kings used the diamonds as a means of assuring their immortality by having their names and worldly titles inscribed upon them. Moreover, it has played and continues to play a pivotal role in Indian social, political, economic, and religious event, as it often has done elsewhere. In Indian history, diamonds have been used to acquire military equipment, finance wars, foment revolutions, and tempt defections. They have contributed to the abdication or the decapitation of potentates. They have been used to murder a representative of the dominating power by lacing his food with crushed diamond. Indian diamonds have been used as security to finance large loans needed to buttress politically or economically tottering regimes. Victorious military heroes have been honoured by rewards of diamonds and also have been used as ransom payment for release from imprisonment or abduction. Today, many jewellery designs and traditions are used, and jewellery is commonplace in Indian ceremonies and
weddings. Pendant with a Siddha(?) LACMA AC1999.239.1.jpg|Pendant probably with
Siddha; 8th–9th century; copper alloy; ;
Los Angeles County Museum of Art (
Los Angeles) Clevelandart 1915.342.1.jpg|Earring with
Vishnu riding
Garuda; ; gold set with jewels and semi-precious stones; overall: ; from
Nepal;
Cleveland Museum of Art (
Cleveland) Clevelandart 1915.346.1.jpg|Earring with four-armed Vishnu riding Garuda with
Nagas (serpent divinities); ; repousse gold with pearls; overall: 3.6 cm; from Nepal; Cleveland Museum of Art Comb with Vishnu Adored by Serpents LACMA M.83.218.1.jpg|Comb with Vishnu adored by serpents; 1750–1800; ivory with traces of paint; ; from Nepal; Los Angeles County Museum of Art
North and South America ear ornaments depicting winged runners; 3rd–7th century; gold, turquoise,
sodalite and shell; diameter: 8 cm;
Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) Jewellery making started in the Americas with the arrival of
Paleo-Indians more than 15,000 years ago. This jewellery would have been made from stone, shell, bone and other perishable materials. The American continent is home to 2
cradles of civilisation: in the
Andes and
Mesoamerica. Cultures in these regions developed more complex methods of jewellery creation. The Andes is the origin of
hot working metallurgy in the Americas and consequently the region has the longest history of work in materials such as silver, platinum and gold. Metallurgy began in Mesoamerica during the Termainal Classic era, likely arriving from direct maritime trade with the Andean cultures. As a result, western Mesoamerican cultures, such as the
Tarascans and
Mixtecs, had more complex use of the technology. With the
Moche culture, goldwork flourished. The pieces are no longer simple metalwork, but are now masterful examples of jewellery making. Pieces are sophisticated in their design, and feature inlays of turquoise, mother of pearl, spondylus shell, and amethyst. The nose and ear ornaments, chest plates, small containers and whistles are considered masterpieces of ancient Peruvian culture. A notable example of Andean metallurgy is the Northern Andean cultures' work with
platinum, which has a much higher
melting point than other precious metals. There are only a few known examples of
cold worked platinum in the
Old World and no known intentionally hot worked examples (platinum was not identified as a separate element and small inclusions appeared in some goldwork). In the New World, however, certain Andean cultures recognised platinum as a separate metal and were able to incorporate it into jewellery, such as through
sintering it with gold. from Tomb 1 of Structure VII of
Calakmul, thought to belong to
Yuknoom Tookʼ Kʼawiil. Late Classic (660 to 750 AD). Among the Late Post-Classic Aztecs, only nobility wore gold jewellery, as it showed their rank, power, and wealth. A large portion of "Aztec gold" jewellery was created by Mixtec artisans. The Mixtecs were particularly known for their goldwork and gold jewellery was part of the tribute paid by Mixtec polities to the Aztecs. In general, the more jewellery an Aztec noble wore, the higher his status or prestige.
The Emperor and his High Priests, for example, would be nearly completely covered in jewellery when making public appearances. Although gold was the most common and a popular material used in Aztec jewellery,
jade,
turquoise, and certain feathers were considered more valuable. In addition to adornment and status, the Aztecs also used jewellery in sacrifices to appease the gods. Another ancient American civilisation with expertise in jewellery making were the
Maya. During the Pre-Classic and Classic era of Maya civilisation, the Maya were making jewellery from local materials such as jade, pearls, and seashell while also incorporating imported materials such as obsidian and turquoise. In the Terminal Classic and Post-Classic, importation of gold, silver,
bronze, and
copper lead to the use of these materials in jewellery. Merchants and nobility were the only few that wore expensive jewellery in the Maya region, much the same as with the Aztecs. Jewellery played a major role in the fate of the
Americas when the
Spanish colonisers were spurred to search for gold on the American mainland after coming into contact with Caribbean natives that had gold jewellery obtained through trade with the mainland. Continued contact with Native Americans wearing gold jewellery eventually lead to Spanish expeditions of the mythological
El Dorado. Messico, colima o jalisco, ornamenti in conchigli di spondylus, 200 ac-200 dc ca. 03.jpg|Pendant made from a
spondylus shell,
Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition, 200 BC to 200 AD, now at the
Art Institute of Chicago, United States. BOG 04 2012 Museo de Oro 1213.JPG|
Muisca gold jewellery, including a headband, nose ornament and pectoral, on display at the
Gold Museum in Bogota, Colombia. Peru, North Coast, Moche culture (50-800), Early Intermediate Period - Nose Ornament with Decapitators and Human Heads - 2005.176 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|Moche nose ornament made from silver and gold-silver
alloy, inlaid with
malachite, now at the
Cleveland Museum of Art, United States. Mixteca-Puebla style labret.jpg|Mixtec-Puebla style
labret made from obsidian in the shape of an eagle, now at the
Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, United States.
Native American silversmith, photo by George Ben Wittick, 1883
Native American jewellery is the personal adornment, often in the forms of necklaces, earrings, bracelets, rings, pins, brooches, labrets, and more, made by the
Indigenous peoples of the United States. Native American jewellery reflects the cultural diversity and history of its makers.
Native American tribes continue to develop distinct aesthetics rooted in their personal artistic visions and cultural traditions. Artists create jewellery for adornment, ceremonies, and trade. Lois Sherr Dubin writes, "[i]n the absence of written languages, adornment became an important element of Indian [Native American] communication, conveying many levels of information." Later, jewellery and personal adornment "...signaled resistance to assimilation. It remains a major statement of tribal and individual identity." Within the Haida Nation of the Pacific Northwest, copper was used as a form of jewellery for creating bracelets. Metalsmiths, beaders, carvers, and lapidaries combine a variety of metals, hardwoods, precious and semi-precious gemstones,
beadwork,
quillwork, teeth, bones, hide, vegetal fibres, and other materials to create jewellery. Contemporary Native American jewellery ranges from hand-quarried and processed stones and shells to computer-fabricated steel and titanium jewellery.
Pacific Jewellery making in the
Pacific started later than in other areas because of recent human settlement. Early Pacific jewellery was made of bone, wood, and other natural materials, and thus has not survived. Most Pacific jewellery is worn above the waist, with headdresses, necklaces, hair pins, and arm and waist belts being the most common pieces. Jewellery in the Pacific, with the exception of Australia, is worn to be a symbol of either fertility or power. Elaborate headdresses are worn by many Pacific cultures and some, such as the inhabitants of
Papua New Guinea, wear certain headdresses once they have killed an enemy. Tribesman may wear boar bones through their noses. Island jewellery is still very much primal because of the lack of communication with outside cultures. Some areas of Borneo and Papua New Guinea are yet to be explored by Western nations. However, the island nations that were flooded with Western missionaries have had drastic changes made to their jewellery designs. Missionaries saw any type of tribal jewellery as a sign of the wearer's devotion to paganism. Thus, many tribal designs were lost forever in the mass conversion to Christianity.
Australia is now the number one supplier of
opals in the world. Opals had already been mined in Europe and South America for many years prior, but in the late 19th century, the Australian opal market became predominant. Australian opals are only mined in a few select places around the country, making it one of the most profitable stones in the Pacific. The
New Zealand Māori traditionally had a strong culture of personal adornment, most famously the
hei-tiki. Hei-tikis are traditionally carved by hand from bone,
nephrite, or
bowenite. Nowadays, a wide range of such traditionally inspired items such as bone carved pendants based on traditional fishhooks
hei matau and other
greenstone jewellery are popular with young
New Zealanders of all backgrounds – for whom they relate to a generalised sense of New Zealand identity. These trends have contributed towards a worldwide interest in traditional Māori culture and arts. Other than jewellery created through Māori influence, modern jewellery in New Zealand is multicultural and varied. File:MAP Expo Maori Hei tiki 15 01 2012 2.jpg|
Māori hei-tiki; 1500–1800; jade (
nephrite), abalone shell and pigments; from the
New Zealand;
Musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac (Paris) File:Pendanr (hei-tiki) LACMA M.71.73.156 (1 of 2).jpg|
Hei-tiki; 18th century; nephrite and haliotis shell; ; from the New Zealand;
Los Angeles County Museum of Art (
Los Angeles) File:Pendant MET DP140060.jpg|Hawaiian pendant; 18th–19th century; whalebone; height: , width, ;
Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) File:Breast Ornament (civa vonovono) LACMA M.2008.66.37.jpg|Breast Ornament (civa vonovono); ; whale ivory, pearl shell and fiber; height: , diameter: ; from
Fiji; Los Angeles County Museum of Art == Modern ==