Legendary origins The
Seder Olam Zuta states that the first exilarch was
Jehoiachin, the king of Judah who was carried off to
captivity in Babylonia in 597 BCE, wherein he established his residence at the city of
Nehardea in Babylonia. This chronicle, written 800, presents a legendary origin to the early history of the house of the Babylonian exilarch. The captive king's advancement at
Evil-Merodach's court—with which the narrative of the
Second Book of Kings closes ()—was regarded by the author of the ''Seder 'Olam Zuta'' as the origin of the office, and the basis for the exilarch's authority. A list of generations of the descendants of the king is given in the text, which closely parallels the names found in
I Chronicles 3:17
et seq. A commentary to the
Chronicles dating from the school of
Saadia Gaon quotes
Judah ibn Kuraish to the effect that the
genealogical list of the descendants of David was added to the book at the end of the period of the
Second Temple, a view which was shared by the author of the list of Babylonian exilarchs in
Seder 'Olam Zuta. This list attempts to bridge the 700-year gap between Jehoiachin and the first exilarch mentioned in written sources, Nahum. It grants some specific hallmarks chronologically connecting personalities with the history of the Second Temple, such as
Shechaniah, who is mentioned as having lived at the time of the Temple's destruction. The following are enumerated as his predecessors in office:
Salathiel,
Zerubbabel,
Meshullam, Hananiah,
Berechiah,
Hasadiah,
Jesaiah,
Obadiah, and
Shemaiah,
Shecaniah, and
Hezekiah. All of these names are also found in I Chron. 3., albeit in a confabulated order. This list cannot be historical given the limited number of generations presented. The name
Akkub is also found at the end of the Davidic list in the
Seder Olam Zuta, which is followed by
Nahum, with whom the historic portion of the list begins, and who may be roughly assigned to the time of the
destruction of Jerusalem (135). This is the period in which the first allusions in rabbinical literature are found to the office of the exilarch.
First allusions in the Jerusalem Talmud In the account referring to the attempt of a teacher of
the Law from the land of Israel, Hananiah, nephew of
Joshua ben Hananiah, to render the Babylonian Jews independent of the
Sanhedrin, the religious and political authority residing in the land of Judea, a man named 'Ahijah' is mentioned as the temporal head of the Babylonian Jews, possibly, one of the first historic exilarchs. Another rabbinical source substitutes the name
Nehunyon for
Ahijah. It is likely that this 'Nehunyon' is identical with the
Nahum mentioned in the list. The political danger threatening the
Sanhedrin eventually passed. At about this same time, Rabbi Nathan, a member of the house of exilarch, came to Galilee, where the
Sanhedrin met and where the
Nasi resided following the Jewish expulsion from Jerusalem. By virtue of his rabbinical scholarship, he was soon classed among the foremost
tannaim of the post-Hadrianic epoch. His supposed Davidic genealogical origins suggested to Rabbi Meïr the plan of making the Babylonian scholar
nasi (prince) in place of the Hillelite
Simon ben Gamaliel. However, the conspiracy against the reigning Nasi failed. Rabbi Nathan was subsequently among the confidants of the Hillelite patriarchal house and the teacher of Simon ben Gamaliel's son, Judah I (also known as
Judah haNasi). Rabbi Meïr's attempt, however, seems to have led Judah I to fear that the Babylonian exilarch might come to Judea to claim the office from
Hillel the Elder's descendant. He discussed the subject with the Babylonian scholar Hiyya, a prominent member of his school, saying that he would pay due honor to the exilarch should the latter come but that he would not renounce the office of
nasi in his favor. When the body of the exilarch
Huna, who was the first incumbent of that office explicitly mentioned as such in Talmudic literature, was brought to Judea during the time of Judah I, Hiyya drew upon himself Judah's deep resentment by announcing the fact to him with the words "Huna is here". A
tannaitic exposition of
Genesis 49:10 which contrasts the Babylonian exilarchs, ruling by force, with Hillel's descendants, teaching in public, evidently intends to cast a negative reflection on the former. However, Judah I had to listen at his own table to the statement of the youthful sons of the Hiyya above about the same tannaitic exposition, that "the
Messiah can not appear until the exilarchate at Babylon and the patriarchate at
Jerusalem shall have ceased".
Succession of exilarchs According to the
Seder Olam Zutta Nahum was followed by his brother
Johanan, both of whom are called sons of
Akkub in the text. Johanan's son
Shaphat is listed next, who was succeeded by
Anan, his son. Given the chronological similarities, the identification of the exilarch Anan with the Huna of the Talmud account is very likely. At the time of Anan's successor
Nathan Ukban I, according to the
Seder Olam Zuta, occurred the fall of the
Parthian Empire and the founding of the Sassanid dynasty in CE 226, which is noted as follows in
Seder Olam Zutta: "In the year 166 after the destruction of the Temple (c. CE 234) the Persian Empire advanced upon the Romans" (on the historical value of this statement. Nathan 'Ukban, also known as
Mar 'Ukban, was the contemporary of Rav and Samuel, who also occupied a prominent position among the scholars of Babylon' and, according to
Sherira Gaon, was also exilarch. As 'Ukban's successor is mentioned in the list his son (
Huna II), whose chief advisers were Rav (died 247) and Samuel (died 254), and in whose time
Papa ben Nazor destroyed
Nehardea. Huna's son and successor,
Nathan, whose chief advisers were Judah ben Ezekiel (died 299) and Shesheth, was called, like his grandfather, "
Mar 'Ukban", and it is he, the second exilarch of this name, whose curious correspondence with
Eleazar ben Pedat is referred to in the Talmud. He was succeeded by his brother (not his son, as stated in
Seder Olam Zutta); his leading adviser was
Shezbi. The "exilarch
Nehemiah" is also mentioned in the Talmud; he is the same person as "Rabbanu Nehemiah," and he and his brother "Rabbeinu 'Ukban" (
Mar Ukban II) are several times mentioned in the Talmud as sons of Rav's daughter (hence Huna II was Rav's son-in-law) and members of the house of the exilarchs.
The Mar Ukbans According to
Seder Olam Zutta, in Nehemiah's time, the 245th year after the destruction of the Temple (313 CE), there took place a great religious persecution by the Persians, of which, however, no details are known. Nehemiah was succeeded by his son
Mar 'Ukban III, whose chief advisers were Rabbah ben Nahmani (died 323) and Adda. He is mentioned as "'Ukban ben Nehemiah, resh galuta," in the Talmud. This Mar 'Ukban, the third exilarch of that name, was also called "Nathan," as were the first two, and has been made the hero of a legend under the name of "Nathan de-Ẓuẓita". The conquest of
Armenia (337) by
Shapur (Sapor) II is mentioned in the chronicle as a historical event occurring during the time of Nathan Ukban III. He was succeeded by his brother Huna Mar (
Huna III), whose chief advisers were Abaye (died 338) and Raba; then followed Mar Ukban's son
Abba, whose chief advisers were Raba (died 352) and Rabina. During Abba's time King Sapor conquered
Nisibis. The designation of a certain Isaac as
resh galuta in the time of Abaye and Raba is due to a clerical error [Brüll's
Jahrbuch, vii. 115], and is therefore omitted from lists. Abba was succeeded first by his son Nathan and then by another son,
Kahana I. The latter's son
Huna is then mentioned as successor, being the fourth exilarch of that name; he died in 441, according to a trustworthy source, the "Seder Tannaim wa-Amoraim." Hence he was a contemporary of
Rav Ashi, the great master of
Sura, who died in 427. In the Talmud, however, Huna ben Nathan is mentioned as Ashi's contemporary, and according to Sherira it was he who was Mar Kahana's successor, a statement which is also confirmed by the Talmud. The statement of
Seder Olam Zutta ought perhaps to be emended, since Huna was probably not the son of Mar Kahana, but the son of the latter's elder brother Nathan.
Persecutions under Peroz and Kobad Huna was succeeded by his brother
Mar Zutra, whose chief adviser was Ahai of Diphti, the same who was defeated in 455 by Ashi's son
Tabyomi (Mar) at the election for director of the school of Sura. Mar Zutra was succeeded by his son Kahana (
Kahana II), whose chief adviser was Rabina, the editor of the Babylonian Talmud (died 499). Then followed two exilarchs by the same name: another son of Mar Zutra,
Huna V, and a grandson of Mar Zutra,
Huna VI, the son of Kahana. Huna V fell a victim to the persecutions under King
Peroz (Firuz) of Persia, being executed, according to Sherira, in 470; Huna VI was not installed in office until some time later, the exilarchate being vacant during the persecutions under Peroz; he died in 508 [Sherira]. The
Seder Olam Zutta connects with the birth of his son
Mar Zutra the legend that is elsewhere told in connection with
Bostanai's birth.
Mar Zutra II, who came into office at the age of fifteen, took advantage of the confusion into which
Mazdak's communistic attempts had plunged Persia, to obtain by force of arms for a short time a sort of political independence for the Jews of Babylon. King
Kobad, however, punished him by crucifying him on the bridge of
Mahuza (c. 502). A son was born to him on the day of his death, who was also named "
Mar Zutra." The latter did not attain to the office of exilarch, but went to the land of Israel, where he became head of the
Academy of Tiberias, under the title of "Resh Pirka" ('Aρχιφεκίτησ), several generations of his descendants succeeding him in this office. After Mar Zutra's death the exilarchate of Babylon remained unoccupied for some time.
Mar Ahunai lived in the period succeeding Mar Zutra II, but for almost fifty years after the catastrophe he did not dare to appear in public, and it is not known whether even then (c. 550) he really acted as exilarch. At any rate the chain of succession of those who inherited the office was not broken. The names of
Kafnai and his son
Haninai, who were exilarchs in the second half of the 6th, have been preserved. Haninai's posthumous son Bostanai was the first of the exilarchs under Arabic rule. Bostanai was the ancestor of the exilarchs who were in office from the time when the Persian empire was conquered by the Arabs, in 642, down to the 11th century. Through him, the splendor of the office was renewed and its political position made secure. His tomb in
Pumbedita was a place of worship as late as the 12th century, according to
Benjamin of Tudela. Not much is known regarding Bostanai's successors down to the time of Saadia except their names; even the name of Bostanai's son is not known. The list of the exilarchs down to the end of the 9th century is given as follows in an old document: "Bostanai,
Hanina ben Adoi,
Hasdai I,
Solomon,
Isaac Iskawi I,
Judah Zakkai (Babawai),
Moses,
Isaac Iskawi II,
David ben Judah,
Hasdai II." Hasdai I was probably Bostanai's grandson. The latter's son Solomon had a deciding voice in the appointments to the gaonate of Sura in the years 733 and 759 [Sherira]. Isaac Iskawi I died very soon after Solomon. In the dispute between David's sons Anan and Hananiah regarding the succession the latter was victor; Anan then proclaimed himself anti-exilarch, was imprisoned, and founded the etc. of the
Karaites. So says the
Jewish Encyclopedia of 1906; the origin of the Karaites is not uncontroversial. His descendants were regarded by the Karaites as the true exilarchs. The following list of Karaite exilarchs, father being succeeded always by son, is given in the genealogy of one of these "Karaite princes":
Anan,
Saul,
Josiah,
Boaz,
Jehoshaphat,
David,
Solomon,
Hezekiah,
Hasdai,
Solomon II. Anan's brother Hananiah is not mentioned in this list. Judah Zakkai, who is called "Zakkai ben Ahunai" by Sherira, had as rival candidate Natronai ben Habibai, who, however, was defeated and sent West in banishment; this Natronai was a great scholar, and, according to tradition, while in
Spain wrote the Talmud from memory. David ben Judah also had to contend with an anti-exilarch, Daniel by name. The fact that the decision in this dispute rested with the calif Al-Ma'mun (825) indicates a decline in the power of the exilarchate. David ben Judah, who carried off the victory, appointed Isaac ben Hiyya as Gaon at Pumbedita in 833. Preceding
Hasdai II's name in the list that of his father
Natronai must be inserted. Both are designated as exilarchs in a geonic responsum.
Deposition of 'Ukba Ukban IV is mentioned as exilarch immediately following the death of
Hasdai II; he was deposed at the instigation of Kohen-Zedek,
Gaon of Pumbedita, but was reinstated in 918 on account of some Arabic verses with which he greeted the caliph
al-Muqtadir. He was deposed again soon afterwards, and fled to Kairwan, where he was treated with great honor by the Jewish community there. 'Ukba's nephew,
David II, became exilarch; but he had to contend for nearly two years with Kohen-Zedek before he was finally confirmed in his power (921). In consequence of Saadia's call to the gaonate of Sura and his controversy with David, the latter has become one of the best-known personages of Jewish history. Saadia had David's brother Josiah (Al-Hasan) elected anti-exilarch in 930, but the latter was defeated and banished to
Chorasan. David ben Zakkai was the last exilarch to play an important part in history. He died a few years before Saadia; his son Judah died seven months afterward. Judah left a son (whose name is not mentioned) twelve years of age, whom Saadia took into his house and educated. His generous treatment of the grandson of his former adversary was continued until Saadia's death in 942.
Diminished power of the Babylonian exilarchate When
Gaon Hai died in 1038, nearly a century after Saadia's death, the members of his academy could not find a more worthy successor than the exilarch
Hezekiah, a great-grandson of David ben Zakkai, who thereafter filled both offices. But two years later, in 1040, Hezekiah, who was the last exilarch and also the last Gaon, fell a victim to calumny by a peer. He was imprisoned and tortured to death. Two of his sons fled to Spain, where they found refuge with Joseph, the son and successor of
Samuel ha-Nagid. Alternatively,
Jewish Quarterly Review mentions that Hezekiah was liberated from prison, and became head of the academy, and is mentioned as such by a contemporary in 1046.
Later traces The title of exilarch is found occasionally even after the Babylonian exilarchate had ceased. Abraham ibn Ezra speaks of the "Davidic house" at
Baghdad (before 1140), calling its members the "heads of the Exile."
Benjamin of Tudela in 1170 mentions the Exilarch Hasdai, among whose pupils was the subsequent pseudo-Messiah
David Alroy, and Hasdai's son, the Exilarch Daniel. Pethahiah of Regensburg also refers to the latter, but under the name of "Daniel ben Solomon"; hence it must be assumed that Hasdai was also called "Solomon".
Yehuda Alharizi (after 1216) met at
Mosul a descendant of the house of David, whom he calls "David, the head of the Exile." A long time previously a descendant of the ancient house of exilarchs had attempted to revive in
Fatimid Egypt the dignity of exilarch which had become extinct in Babylon. This was David ben Daniel; he came to Egypt at the age of twenty, in 1081, and was proclaimed exilarch by the learned Jewish authorities of that country, who wished to divert to Egypt the leadership formerly enjoyed by Babylon. A contemporary document, the Megillah of the
gaon Abiathar from the land of Israel, gives an authentic account of this episode of the Egyptian Exilarchate, which ended with the downfall of David ben Daniel in 1094. Descendants of the house of exilarchs were living in various places long after the office became extinct. A descendant of Hezekiah,
Hiyya al-Daudi, Gaon of Andalucia, died in 1154 in
Castile according to Abraham ibn Daud. Several families, as late as the 14th century, traced their descent back to Josiah, the brother of David ben Zakkai who had been banished to Chorasan. The descendants of the Karaite exilarchs have been referred to above. ==Character of the exilarchate before Arab expansion==