Shinkansen

literally means or in Japanese. The term is used to refer both to the dedicated high-speed railway infrastructure and to the trains that operate on it. In English, Shinkansen trains are commonly referred to as the bullet train. This expression is a literal translation of the Japanese nickname , which dates to 1939 and was originally applied to early high-speed rail proposals during the initial planning stages of the project. The name later became firmly associated with Shinkansen services due to their high operating speeds and the distinctive, bullet-like profile of the original 0 Series Shinkansen trains. == History ==

Background Japan was the first country to construct railway lines dedicated to high-speed travel. Owing to the country's mountainous terrain, the pre-existing rail network was built primarily to a narrow-gauge and followed indirect alignments. These lines could not be readily adapted for sustained high-speed operation because of inherent technical limitations, including lower permissible speeds on curves compared with wider gauges. For example, a curve allowing a maximum speed of on standard-gauge track would typically be limited to around on narrow-gauge track. This train gave designers the confidence that they could safely build an even faster standard-gauge train. Thus the first Shinkansen, the 0 series, was built on the success of the Romancecar. In the 1950s, prevailing opinion in Japan held that railways would soon become obsolete, following trends in the United States toward air travel and highway construction. In contrast, Shinji Sogō, president of Japanese National Railways (JNR), strongly advocated the viability of high-speed rail and played a decisive role in securing political support for the Shinkansen project. Technical leadership was provided by Hideo Shima, JNR's chief engineer. Other major contributors included Tadanao Miki, Tadashi Matsudaira, and Hajime Kawanabe of the Railway Technical Research Institute (RTRI), then part of JNR. This group was responsible for much of the engineering work on the first Shinkansen line, the Tōkaidō Shinkansen. All three had prior experience in aircraft design during World War II. Government approval came in December 1958, and construction of the first segment of the Tōkaidō Shinkansen between Tokyo and Osaka started in April 1959. The cost of constructing the Shinkansen was at first estimated at nearly 200 billion yen,() which was raised in the form of a government loan, railway bonds and a low-interest loan of US$80 million () from the World Bank. Initial estimates, however, were understated and the actual cost was about 380 billion yen. As the budget shortfall became clear in 1963, Sogō resigned to take responsibility. A test facility for rolling stock, called the Kamonomiya Model Section, opened in Odawara in 1962. Initial success The Tōkaidō Shinkansen began service on 1 October 1964, shortly before the opening of the 1964 Tokyo Olympics on 10 October 1964. Prior to the introduction of the high-speed line, conventional limited express services required approximately 6 hours and 40 minutes to travel between Tokyo and Osaka. With the opening of the Shinkansen, the limited-stop Hikari service reduced the journey time to four hours, while the all-stations Kodama service completed the trip in five hours. The first Shinkansen trains, the 0 series, ran at speeds of up to , later increased to , reducing end-to-end trip times on Hikari services to three hours and ten minutes. The new service enabled same-day travel between Tokyo and Osaka, Japan's two largest metropolitan areas, significantly influencing business practices and daily life while generating substantial new passenger demand. The line was an immediate success, carrying 100 million passengers within three years, a milestone reached on 13 July 1967, and surpassing one billion passengers in 1976. Sixteen-car trainsets were introduced in time for Expo '70 in Osaka. By 1992, the Tōkaidō Shinkansen carried an average of approximately 23,000 passengers per hour in each direction, making it the world's busiest high-speed rail line at the time. As of 2014, the line's 50th anniversary year, average daily ridership had increased to about 391,000 passengers, which, over an 18-hour operating day, represented an average of just under 22,000 passengers per hour. Network expansion The Tōkaidō Shinkansen's rapid success prompted an extension westward to Okayama, Hiroshima and Fukuoka (the San'yō Shinkansen), which was completed in 1975. Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka was an ardent supporter of the Shinkansen, and his government proposed an extensive network paralleling most existing trunk lines. Two new lines, the Tōhoku Shinkansen and Jōetsu Shinkansen, were built following this plan. Many other planned lines were delayed or scrapped entirely as JNR slid into debt throughout the late 1970s, largely because of the high cost of building the Shinkansen network and the effects of the 1973 oil crisis. By 1987, the company was deeply in debt, leading to its privatization. Development of the Shinkansen by the privatised regional JR companies has continued, with new train models developed, each generally with its own distinctive appearance (such as the 500 series introduced by JR West). Since 2014, Shinkansen trains run regularly at speeds up to on the Tōhoku Shinkansen; only the Shanghai maglev train, China Railway High-speed networks, and the Indonesian Jakarta-Bandung High-speed railway have commercial services that operate faster. Since 1970, development has also been underway for the Chūō Shinkansen, a planned maglev line from Tokyo to Osaka. On 21 April 2015, a seven-car L0 series maglev trainset, planned to be used on the line, set a world speed record of . The line is expected to operate at , with the estimated travel time between Tokyo and Osaka taking 67 minutes. Construction commenced in 2011 and was originally scheduled to open in 2027, though it has since been delayed to at least 2034. == Technology ==

To enable high-speed operation, Shinkansen uses a range of advanced technology compared with conventional rail, achieving not only high speed but also a high standard of safety and comfort. Its success has influenced other railways in the world, demonstrating the importance and advantages of high-speed rail. Routing The majority of Shinkansen routes never intersect with slower, narrow-gauge conventional lines. Consequently, the Shinkansen is not affected by slower trains and has the capacity to operate many high-speed trains punctually. Routes are also completely grade separated from road traffic and tracks are strictly off-limits, with penalties against trespassing regulated by law. The routes make extensive use of tunnels and viaducts to go through and over obstacles rather than around them, with a minimum curve radius of , although the older Tōkaidō Shinkansen line has a minimum of . While most Shinkansen routes follow this pattern, two exceptions exist. These are the mini-shinkansen lines, which run on conventional lines converted to standard gauge; and the Hokkaido Shinkansen, which shares trackage with narrow-gauge freight trains through the Seikan Tunnel. Track The Shinkansen uses standard gauge in contrast to the narrow gauge of most other lines in Japan. Continuous welded rail and swingnose crossing points are employed, eliminating gaps at turnouts and crossings. Long rails are used, joined by expansion joints to minimize gauge fluctuation due to thermal elongation and shrinkage. A combination of ballasted and slab track is used, with slab track exclusively employed on concrete bed sections such as viaducts and tunnels. Slab track is significantly more cost-effective in tunnel sections, since the lower track height reduces the cross-sectional area of the tunnel, reducing construction costs up to 30%. However, the smaller diameter of Shinkansen tunnels, compared to some other high-speed lines, has resulted in the issue of tunnel boom becoming a concern for residents living close to tunnel portals. The slab track consists of rails, fasteners and track slabs with a cement asphalt mortar. On the roadbed and in tunnels, circular upstands, measuring in diameter and high, are located at 5-metre intervals. The prefabricated upstands are made of either reinforced concrete or pre-stressed reinforced concrete; they prevent the track slab from moving latitudinally or longitudinally. One track slab weighs approximately 5 tons and is wide, long and thick. Signal system (Vertical axis represents the speed of the train whereas the horizontal axis represents the distance.) The Shinkansen employs an ATC (automatic train control) system, eliminating the need for trackside signals. It uses a comprehensive system of automatic train protection. This larger loading gauge permits wider coaches, allowing for 5-abreast seating (2+3) in Standard Class coaches, compared to the more common 4-abreast (2+2) seating usually found elsewhere. On occasions, this wider loading gauge was also used to allow 6-abreast seating (3+3) on certain trains, such as the E1 and E4 series sets. This, combined with a lack of power cars, allows for a higher passenger capacity within a shorter train length. However, since mini-Shinkansen lines are effectively track-regauged conventional lines, the conventional loading gauge for 1,067mm lines still applies on mini-Shinkansen lines. Traction The Shinkansen has used EMUs from the outset, with the 0 Series Shinkansen having all axles powered. Other railway manufacturers were traditionally reluctant or unable to use distributed traction configurations (Talgo, the German ICE 2 and the French (and subsequently South Korean) TGV (and KTX-I and KTX-Sancheon) use the locomotive (also known as power car) configuration with the Renfe Class 102 and continues with it for the Talgo AVRIL because it is not possible to use powered bogies as part of Talgo's bogie design, which uses a modified Jacobs bogie with a single axle instead of two and allows the wheels to rotate independently of each other; on the ICE 2, TGV and KTX it is because it easily allows for a high ride quality and less electrical equipment.) In Japan, significant engineering desirability exists for the electric multiple unit configuration. A greater proportion of motored axles permits higher acceleration, so the Shinkansen does not lose as much time if stopping frequently. Shinkansen lines have more stops in proportion to their lengths compared to high-speed lines elsewhere in the world owing to the distribution of major population centers across the country. ==Shinkansen lines==

Current lines The main Shinkansen lines are: The Tōkaidō, San'yō, and Kyūshū lines form a contiguous west- and southbound corridor from Tōkyō station. Train services operate between the Tōkaidō and San'yō lines and between the San'yō and Kyūshū lines, even though they are operated by different companies. The Tōkaidō and Tōhoku lines are not physically connected at Tokyo Station, as they use different electrification standards, signaling systems, and earthquake-mitigation devices. All northbound services from Tōkyō station travel along the Tōhoku line until at least Ōmiya before diverging to other Shinkansen or mini-Shinkansen routes. Mini-Shinkansen Instead of constructing a new right of way, two further lines known as mini-Shinkansen have been constructed by re-gauging existing sections of conventional lines. The mini-Shinkansen trains are coupled to a Tōhoku Shinkansen train between Tokyo and their start station where they couple/decouple on the platform before continuing their journey. While operating on the mini-Shinkansen lines trains have a maximum speed of . Non-Shinkansen lines operated with Shinkansen equipment There are two standard-gauge lines that are not classified as Shinkansen or mini-Shinkansen lines but are operated with Shinkansen equipment, as they use tracks leading to Shinkansen storage yards: Lines under construction The following lines are under construction. These lines except Chūō Shinkansen, called Seibi Shinkansen or planned Shinkansen, are the Shinkansen projects designated in the decided by the government. • The Hokkaido Shinkansen from to is under construction and scheduled to open by 2038. • The Chūō Shinkansen (Tokyo–Nagoya–Osaka) is the first maglev Shinkansen line, which has been under construction since 2014. JR Central originally aimed to begin commercial service between Tokyo and Nagoya in 2027. However, in 2024, Central Japan Railway Co President Shunsuke Niwa said that due to construction delays a 2027 opening was now impossible and it is not expected to open until at least 2034. Proposed lines Many Shinkansen lines were proposed during the boom of the early 1970s but have yet to be constructed and have subsequently been shelved indefinitely. • Hokkaido Shinkansen northern extension: Sapporo–Asahikawa • : Oshamanbe–Muroran–Sapporo • : Toyama–Niigata–Aomori • Toyama–Jōetsu-Myōkō exists as part of the Hokuriku Shinkansen, and Nagaoka–Niigata exists as part of the Jōetsu Shinkansen, with provisions for the Uetsu Shinkansen at Nagaoka. • : Fukushima–Yamagata–Akita • Fukushima–Shinjō and Ōmagari–Akita exist as the Yamagata Shinkansen and Akita Shinkansen, respectively, but as "Mini-shinkansen" upgrades of existing track, they do not meet the requirements of the Basic Plan. • : Nagoya–Tsuruga • : Osaka–Tottori–Matsue–Shimonoseki • : Okayama–Matsue • : Osaka–Tokushima–Takamatsu–Matsuyama–Ōita • : Okayama–Kōchi–Matsuyama • There have been some activity regarding the Shikoku and Trans-Shikoku Shinkansen in recent years. In 2016, the Shikoku and Trans-Shikoku Shinkansen were identified as potential future projects in a review of long-term plans for the Shikoku area and funds allocated towards the planning of the route. A profitability study has also been commissioned by the city of Oita in 2018 that found the route to be potentially profitable • : Fukuoka–Ōita–Miyazaki–Kagoshima • : Ōita–Kumamoto In addition, the Basic Plan specified that the Jōetsu Shinkansen should start from Shinjuku, not Tokyo Station, which would have required building an additional of track between Shinjuku and Ōmiya. While no construction work was ever started, land along the proposed track, including an underground section leading to Shinjuku Station, remains reserved. If capacity on the Tokyo–Ōmiya section proves insufficient at some point, construction of the Shinjuku–Ōmiya link may be reconsidered. In December 2009, then transport minister Seiji Maehara proposed a bullet train link to Haneda Airport, using an existing spur that connects the Tōkaidō Shinkansen to a train depot. JR Central called the plan "unrealistic" due to tight train schedules on the existing line, but reports said that Maehara wished to continue discussions on the idea. The succeeding minister has not indicated whether this proposal remains supported. While the plan may become more feasible after the opening the Chūō Shinkansen (sometimes referred to as a bypass to the Tokaido Shinkansen) frees up capacity, construction is already underway for other rail improvements between Haneda and Tokyo station expected to be completed prior to the opening of the 2020 Tokyo Olympics, so any potential Shinkansen service would likely offer only marginal benefit. Despite these plans ultimately not being realized (owing in part due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic), rail projects in the vicinity of Haneda Airport, including the Haneda Airport Access Line and the Tokyo Rinkai Subway Line, continue to undergo planning. Cancelled lines The Narita Shinkansen project to connect Tokyo to Narita International Airport, initiated in the 1970s but halted in 1983 after landowner protests, has been officially cancelled and removed from the Basic Plan governing Shinkansen construction. Parts of its planned right-of-way were used by the Narita Sky Access Line which opened in 2010, and the Keiyo Line reused space originally set aside for the Narita Shinkansen terminus at Tokyo Station. Although the Sky Access Line uses standard-gauge track, it was not built to Shinkansen specifications and there are no plans to convert it into a full Shinkansen line. == Services ==

Originally intended to carry passenger trains by day and freight trains by night, the Shinkansen lines carried exclusively passengers for the first five and a half decades of their operation. Light freight has been carried on some passenger services since 2019, and there are plans to expand this with freight-only trains in the future. The system shuts down between midnight and 06:00 every day for maintenance. Japan's few remaining overnight passenger trains run on the older, narrow-gauge network that the Shinkansen parallels. There are three principal service types on the Shinkansen: • Express – stop only at major stations and are the fastest services in terms of average journey time. • Local – stop at every station along the section they operate over, and therefore have the lowest average speeds. These services typically operate over only part of a line rather than end to end. • Tanigawa (local) Hokuriku Shinkansen • Kagayaki (express) • Hakutaka (limited-stop) • Tsurugi (local) • Asama (local) Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen • Kamome (local) == Rolling stock ==

Shinkansen trains are up to sixteen cars long, and the longest are over from end to end. Stations are similarly long to accommodate these trains. Passenger trains Tōkaidō and San'yō Shinkansen • 0 series – The first Shinkansen trains which entered service in 1964. Maximum operating speed was . More than 3,200 cars were built. Withdrawn in December 2008. • 100 series – Entered service in 1985, and featured bilevel cars with restaurant car and compartments. Maximum operating speed was . Later used only on San'yō Shinkansen Kodama services. Withdrawn in March 2012. • 300 series – Entered service in 1992, initially on Nozomi services with maximum operating speed of . Withdrawn in March 2012. • 500 series – Introduced on Nozomi services in 1997, with an operating speed of . Since 2008, sets have been shortened from 16 to 8 cars for use on San'yō Shinkansen Kodama services. • 700 series – 8 and 16-car trainsets introduced in 1999, with maximum operating speed of . The JR Central owned units were withdrawn in March 2020, with the JR West owned units continuing to operate on the San'yō Shinkansen line between Shin-Osaka and Hakata. • N700 series – 16-car trainsets introduced in 2007, with a maximum operating speed of . • N700A series – 16-car trainsets introduced in 2013. An upgraded version of N700 series with improved acceleration/deceleration and quieter traction motors. All N700 series sets have been converted to N700A. • N700S series – 16-car trainsets introduced in 2020. An evolution of the N700A series. File:Shinkansen Series0 R67 JNRcolor.jpg|0 series File:Shinkansen100.jpg|100 series File:JR Central Shinkansen 300.jpg|300 series File:Shinkansen 500 series W2 formation.jpg|500 series File:JR Central Shinkansen 700.jpg|700 series File:Shinkansen 700 Rail Star (8086223807).jpg|700 series (Hikari Rail Star) File:Shinkansen N700 z15.jpg|N700 series File:Series-N700A-F20.jpg|N700A series File:Series-N700S-J2.jpg|N700S series Kyushu and Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen • 800 series – 6-car trainsets introduced in March 2004 on the Kyushu Shinkansen with a maximum speed of . • N700-7000/8000 series – 8-car trainsets introduced in March 2011 on the Kyushu Shinkansen with a maximum speed of . • N700S-8000 series – 6-car trainsets introduced in 2022 on the Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen with a maximum speed of . • E7/W7 series – 12-car trainsets introduced in March 2014 for the Hokuriku Shinkansen and later introduced on the Jōetsu Shinkansen in 2019. Maximum operating speed is . The E7 series is owned by JR East and the W7 series by JR West; the two types are otherwise identical. File:JR East Shinkansen 200(renewal).jpg|200 series File:JReastE1 Omiya 20120918.jpg|E1 series File:Series-E2-1000-J70.jpg|E2 series File:Series-E4-P13.jpg|E4 series File:JRE-TEC-E5 omiya.JPG|E5 series File:H5kei hayabusa and E6kei komachi.JPG|H5 series File:Series-E7-F19.jpg|E7/W7 series Yamagata and Akita Shinkansen • 400 series – The first mini-Shinkansen train type, introduced in 1992 for services on the Yamagata Shinkansen. It had a maximum operating speed of and was withdrawn from service in April 2010. • E3 series – Introduced in 1997 for the Akita Shinkansen, with a maximum operating speed of . Additional trainsets were built for use on the Yamagata Shinkansen. From 2014 onward, the type has been used exclusively on the Yamagata Shinkansen. • E6 series – Introduced in March 2013 as the replacement for the E3 series on the Akita Shinkansen, featuring a maximum operating speed of . • E8 series – Introduced in March 2024 as the replacement for the E3 series on the Yamagata Shinkansen. The type has a maximum operating speed of . File:400 L3 Tsubasa Yamagata 20020824.jpg|400 series File:E3-2000 L67 Akayu Tsubasa 128 20150905.jpg|E3 series File:E6 series Z12 Komachi 20161013.jpg|E6 series File:Shinkansen E8 series test.jpg|E8 series Experimental trains • Class 1000 – 1961 • Class 951 – 1969 • Class 961 – 1973 • Class 962 – 1979 • 500-900 series "WIN350" – 1992 • Class 952/953 "STAR21" – 1992 • Class 955 "300X" – 1994 • Gauge Change Train – 1998 to present • Class E954 "Fastech 360S" – 2004 • Class E955 "Fastech 360Z" – 2005 • Class E956 "ALFA-X" – 2019 Class 1000 Shinkansen Photograph.png|Class 1000 File:951-1 RTRI Kokubunji 199711.jpg|Class 951 File:JNR shinkansen 961 sendai.jpg|Class 961 File:925-10 S2 Takasaki 20020925.jpg|Class 962 File:WIN350 Maibara 19981011.jpg|WIN350 File:STAR21 952-1 Maibara 20060727.JPG|STAR21 File:Shinkansen955-1-2.jpg|300X File:Gauge Changing Train 20120912.jpg|Gauge change train (2nd generation) File:E954 S9 Sendai 20060421.jpg|Fastech 360S File:E955 Sendai General Shinkansen Depot 20080726.jpg|Fastech 360Z File:E956S13Sendai.jpg|ALFA-X Maintenance vehicles • 911 Type diesel locomotive • 912 Type diesel locomotive • DD18 Type diesel locomotive • DD19 Type diesel locomotive • 941 Type (rescue train) • 921 Type (track inspection car) • 922 Type (Doctor Yellow sets T1, T2, T3) • 923 Type (Doctor Yellow sets T4, T5) • 925 Type (Doctor Yellow sets S1, S2) • E926 Type (East i) File:Class 922 Doctor Yellow set T2.jpg|Doctor Yellow Type 922 File:Type923-T4.jpg|Doctor Yellow Type 923 File:925-10 S2 Takasaki 20020925.jpg|Doctor Yellow Type 925 File:TypeE926.jpg|Type E926 East-i File:911 dl.JPG|Type 911 locomotive File:Tokaido Shinkansen Kyoto station railway track maintenancea line 02.jpg|Track maintenance vehicles stabled along sidings outside Kyoto station File:Multiple Tie Tamper.jpg|Tamping machine File:バラスト整理車.jpg|Ballast cleaner File:延線車.jpg|Overhead line replacement vehicle File:装柱車.jpg|Loading vehicle == Speed records ==

Traditional rail == Reliability ==

Punctuality The Shinkansen is very reliable thanks to several factors, including its near-total separation from slower traffic. In 2016, JR Central reported that the Shinkansen's average delay from schedule per train was 24 seconds. This includes delays due to uncontrollable causes, such as natural disasters. Safety record Over the Shinkansen's 60-plus year history, carrying over 10 billion passengers, there have been no passenger fatalities due to train accidents such as derailments or collisions, despite frequent earthquakes and typhoons. Injuries and a single fatality have been caused by doors closing on passengers or their belongings; attendants are employed at platforms to prevent such accidents. There have, however, been suicides by passengers jumping both from and in front of moving trains. There have been two derailments of Shinkansen trains in passenger service. The first one occurred during the Chūetsu earthquake on 23 October 2004. Eight of ten cars of the Toki No. 325 train on the Jōetsu Shinkansen derailed near Nagaoka Station in Nagaoka, Niigata. There were no casualties among the 154 passengers. Another derailment happened on 2 March 2013 on the Akita Shinkansen when the Komachi No. 25 train derailed in blizzard conditions in Daisen, Akita. No passengers were injured. In the event of an earthquake, an earthquake detection system can bring the train to a stop very quickly; newer trainsets are lighter and have stronger braking systems, allowing for quicker stopping. New anti-derailment devices were installed on tracks after analysis of the Jōetsu derailment. Kobe Steel is one of the suppliers of high-strength steel for Shinkansen trainsets and, during inspections following the Kobe Steel data falsification scandal, cracks were found in a single bogie which was then removed from service on 11 December 2017. On 23 January 2024, a massive power outage struck the Tohoku, Hokuriku and Joetsu Shinkansen lines, resulting in the cancellation of 283 trains and affecting about 120,000 passengers. JR East said that the outage was caused by a Kagayaki service train touching an overhead power cable which was left dangling after the metal rod supporting it fractured between Omiya Station in Saitama and Ueno Station in Tokyo. The incident damaged the train's pantographs and a window, while two railway employees were hospitalized following an explosion that occurred at the site during repairs. Most Shinkansen services were restored the following morning. In September 2024 and March 2025, two decoupling incidents took place on trains servicing the Tohoku line. On 15 August 2025, a burning smell was noticed by crew members aboard a Kodama service of the Tokaido Shinkansen. At the time, the N700S set was travelling between Maibara and Gifu-Hashima station, where the train was stopped and white smoke was found coming from underneath car number 9. The fire department was called, and identified a fire on the underside of the vehicle. There were no reported injuries, but the 250 passengers were forced to disembark and take a later Nozomi service. == Effects ==

Economics The Shinkansen has had a significant beneficial effect on Japan's business, economy, society, environment and culture beyond mere construction and operational contributions. The resultant time savings alone from switching from a conventional to a high-speed network have been estimated at 400 million hours, and the system has an economic contribution of per year. The privatized JRs eventually paid to acquire JNR's Shinkansen network. Environment Traveling by the Tokaido Shinkansen from Tokyo to Osaka produces only around 16% of the carbon dioxide of the equivalent journey by car, a saving of 15,000 tons of per year. == Challenges ==

Noise pollution Noise pollution concerns have made increasing speed more difficult. In Japan, population density is high and there have been strong protests against the Shinkansen's noise pollution. Its noise is thus limited to less than 70 dB in residential areas. Improvement and reduction of the pantograph, weight saving of cars, and construction of noise barriers and other measures have been implemented. Research is primarily aimed at reducing operational noise, particularly the tunnel boom phenomenon caused when trains transit tunnels at high speed. Earthquake Because of the risk of earthquakes in Japan, the Urgent Earthquake Detection and Alarm System (UrEDAS) (an earthquake warning system) was introduced in 1992. It enables automatic braking of Shinkansen trains in the event of large earthquakes. Heavy snow The Tōkaidō Shinkansen often experiences heavy snow in the area around Maibara Station between December and February, requiring trains to reduce speed thus disrupting the timetable. Snow-dispersing sprinkler systems have been installed, but delays of 10–20 minutes still occur during snowy weather. Snow-related treefalls have also caused service interruptions. Along the Jōetsu Shinkansen route, snow can be very heavy, with depths of two to three metres; the line is equipped with stronger sprinklers and slab track to mitigate the snow's effects. Despite having multiple days with delays longer than 30 minutes, the Tōhoku Shinkansen still presents a slight advantage in reliability compared to air travel on days with significant snowfall. == Ridership ==

Annual • The sum of the ridership of individual lines does not equal the ridership of the system because a single rider may be counted multiple times when using multiple lines, to get proper ridership figures for a system, in the above case, is only counted once. • Only refers to 6 days of operation: 26 March 2016 (opening date) to 31 March 2016 (end of FY2015). Until 2011, Japan's high-speed rail system had the highest annual patronage of any system worldwide, when China's HSR network's patronage reached 1.7 billion and became the world's highest. Cumulative comparison Notes: • Data in italics includes extrapolated estimations where data is missing. Turkey and Russia data here is included in "Europe" column, rather than split between Asia and Europe. Only systems with 200 km/h or higher regular service speed are considered. • "Shinkansen share(%)" refers to percent of Shinkansen ridership (including fully assembled exported trainsets) as a percent of "World" total. Currently this only pertains to Taiwan, but may change if Japan exports Shinkansen to other nations. • "Shinkansen" column does not include Shinkansen knock down kits made in Japan exported to China for assembly, or any derivative system thereof in China • "Asia (other)" column refers to sum of riderships of all HSR systems geographically in Asia that do not use Shinkansen. (this data excludes Russia and Turkey, which geographically have parts in Asia but for sake of convenience included in Europe column) • For 2013, Japan's Ministry of Transport has not updated data, nor is summed European data available (even 2012 data is very rough), however Taiwan ridership is 47.49 million and Korea with 54.5 million and China with 672 million in 2013. Cumulative ridership since October 1964 is over 5 billion passengers for the Tokaido Shinkansen Line alone and 10 billion passengers for Japan's entire shinkansen network. Passenger-kilometres Indicates that multiple sources are available, and report different values == Future ==

Speed increases Tōhoku Shinkansen E5 series trains, capable of up to , initially limited to , were introduced on the Tōhoku Shinkansen in March 2011. Operation at the maximum speed of between and on this route commenced on 16 March 2013. It reduced the journey time to around 3 hours for trains from Tokyo to Shin-Aomori, a distance of . Extensive trials using the Fastech 360 test trains have shown that operation at is not feasible because of problems of noise pollution (particularly tunnel boom), overhead wire wear, and braking distances. On 30 October 2012, JR East announced that it was pursuing research and development to increase speeds to on the Tohoku Shinkansen by 2020. The ALFA-X is undergoing testing. Hokkaido Shinkansen Upon commencement of services in 2016, the maximum speed on the approximately dual gauge section of the Hokkaido Shinkansen (including through the Seikan Tunnel) was , which was increased to by March 2019. There are approximately 50 freight trains using the dual gauge section each day, so limiting the travel of such trains to times outside of Shinkansen services is not an option. Because of this and other weather-related factors cited by JR East and JR Hokkaido, the fastest journey time between Tokyo and Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto is 3 hours, 57 minutes. During the 2020–21 New Year Holiday period, certain Shinkansen services were operated at on the dual gauge section and was proposed again for the Golden Week Holiday period from 3–6 May 2021, due to fewer freight trains operating. There are further plans to extend the line from Tsuruga to Osaka, with the Obama-Kyoto route chosen by the government on 20 December 2016, after a government committee investigated the five nominated routes. Construction of the extension beyond Tsuruga is not expected to commence before 2030, with a projected 15-year construction period. On 6 March 2017 the government committee announced the chosen route from Kyoto to Shin-Osaka is to be via Kyotanabe, with a station at on the Katamachi Line. Abandoned interim Gauge Change plans To extend the benefits of the Hokuriku Shinkansen to stations west of Tsuruga before the line to Osaka is completed, JR West was working in partnership with Talgo on the development of a Gauge Change Train (CGT) capable of operating under both the 25 kV AC electrification used on the Shinkansen and the 1.5 kV DC system employed on conventional lines. A trial of the proposed bogie was undertaken on a purpose-built gauge-changer at Tsuruga, but it was unsuccessful and the plans were abandoned. Tohoku extension/Hokkaido Shinkansen The Hokkaido Shinkansen forms an extension of the Tohoku Shinkansen north of to Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto Station (north of the Hokkaido city of Hakodate) through the Seikan Tunnel, which was converted to dual gauge as part of the project, opening in March 2016. JR Hokkaido is extending the Hokkaido Shinkansen from Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto to to open by 2038. The extension will be approximately 76% in tunnels, including major tunnels such as Toshima (~) Oshima (~), Teine (~) and Shiribeshi (~). Although an extension from Sapporo to Asahikawa was included in the 1973 list of planned lines, at this time it is unknown whether the Hokkaido Shinkansen will be extended beyond Sapporo. Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen JR Kyushu opened the Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen from to (built to full Shinkansen standard) on 23 September 2022, with the existing narrow-gauge section between Shin-Tosu and Takeo Onsen proposed to be upgraded as part of this project. This proposal initially involved introducing Gauge Change Trains (GCT) travelling from Hakata to Shin-Tosu () on the existing Kyushu Shinkansen line, then passing through a specific gauge changing (standard to narrow) section of track linking to the existing Nagasaki Main Line, along which it would travel to Hizen Yamaguchi (), then onto the Sasebo Line to Takeo-Onsen (), where another gauge changing section (narrow to standard) would lead onto the final Shinkansen line to Nagasaki (). However, significant technical issues with the axles of the GCT resulted in its cancellation. On 28 October 2020, JR Kyushu announced it would utilize a 6-car version of the N700S for the isolated Shinkansen section from Nagasaki, with 'cross platform' change to a relay service at Takeo Onsen station to connect to Hakata. JR Kyushu also announced the service would continue to use the name 'Kamome' for the Hakata-Nagasaki service, which has been in use since 1961. The Shinkansen line shortens the distance between Hakata and Nagasaki by 6.2% (), and while only 64% of the route is built to full Shinkansen standards, it eliminated the slowest sections of the previous narrow-gauge route. As part of the GCT proposal, the section of single track between Hizen Yamaguchi and Takeo Onsen was proposed to be duplicated. However, due to the issues with the development of the GCT, the proposal did not advance. The initial section between Nagasaki and Takeo Onsen opened on 23 September 2022. Maglev (Chūō Shinkansen) Maglev trains have been undertaking test runs on the Yamanashi test track since 1997, running at speeds of over . As a result of this extensive testing, maglev technology is almost ready for public usage. An extension of the test track from was completed in June 2013, enabling extended high-speed running trials to commence in August 2013. This section will be incorporated into the Chūō Shinkansen which will eventually link Tokyo to Osaka. Construction of the Shinagawa to Nagoya section began in 2014, with 86% of the route to be in tunnels. Plans were approved in 2017 for the Chūō Shinkansen to begin at Tokyo Station, rather than Shinagawa Station as initially planned due to difficulties in securing land. JR Central originally aimed to begin commercial service between Tokyo and Nagoya in 2027. However, in 2024, Central Japan Railway Co President Shunsuke Niwa said that due to construction delays a 2027 opening was now impossible and it is not expected to open until at least 2034. While the government has granted approval for the shortest route between Tokyo and Nagoya, some prefectural governments, particularly Nagano, lobbied to have the line routed farther north to serve the city of Chino and either Ina or . However, that would increase both the travel time (from Tokyo to Nagoya) and the cost of construction. JR Central has confirmed it will construct the line through Kanagawa Prefecture, and terminate at Shinagawa Station. The route for the Nagoya to Osaka section is also contested. It is planned to go via Nara, about south of Kyoto. Kyoto is lobbying to have the route moved north and be largely aligned with the existing Tokaido Shinkansen, which services Kyoto and not Nara. Mini-Shinkansen is the name given to the routes where former narrow-gauge lines have been converted to standard gauge to allow Shinkansen trains to travel to cities without the expense of constructing full Shinkansen standard lines. Two mini-shinkansen routes have been constructed: the Yamagata Shinkansen and Akita Shinkansen. Shinkansen services to these lines traverse the Tohoku Shinkansen line from Tokyo before branching off to traditional main lines. On both the Yamagata/Shinjo and Akita lines, the narrow-gauge lines were regauged, resulting in the local services being operated by standard-gauge versions of suburban/interurban rolling stock. On the Akita line between Omagari and Akita, one of the two narrow-gauge lines was regauged, and a section of the remaining narrow-gauge line is dual gauge, providing opportunity for Shinkansen services to pass each other without stopping. The maximum speed on these lines is , however the overall travel time to/from Tokyo is improved due to the elimination of the need for passengers to change trains at Fukushima and Morioka respectively. As the loading gauge (size of the train that can travel on a line) was not altered when the rail gauge was widened, only Shinkansen trains specially built for these routes can travel on the lines. They are the E3 and E6 series trains. Whilst no further Mini-shinkansen routes have been proposed, it remains an option for providing Shinkansen services to cities on the narrow-gauge network. Proposed Ou Base Tunnel Construction of a base tunnel on the Yamagata Shinkansen is proposed, with JR East having undertaken a survey of a planned route from Niwasaka to Sekine, just south of Yonezawa station. of the proposed line would be in tunnel, mostly to the north of the existing Fukushima – Yamagata section. To be built on an improved alignment, the tunnel would lower journey times between Fukushima and Yamagata by ~10 min due to a proposed line speed of up to 200 km/h. The tunnel would avoid the Itaya Toge pass through the Ōu Mountains west of Fukushima. Gradients range from 3.0% to 3.8% and the line reaches an altitude of . The curvature and steep grades of the current line limit train speeds to or less, and it is vulnerable to heavy rain and snowfall as well as high winds. Between 2011 and 2017 a total of 410 Yamagata mini-Shinkansen services were either suspended or delayed, and 40% of these incidents occurred on the line over the Itaya Toge pass. If the base tunnel is authorised, detailed design would take five years and construction another 15 years. The cost could increase by if the tunnel were to be built with a cross-section large enough to permit the line to be upgraded to the full Shinkansen loading gauge. Gauge Change Train This is the name for the concept of using a single train that is designed to travel on both narrow-gauge railway lines and the standard gauge used by Shinkansen train services in Japan. The trucks/bogies of the Gauge Change Train (GCT) allow the wheels to be unlocked from the axles, narrowed or widened as necessary, and then relocked. This allows a GCT to traverse both standard-gauge and narrow-gauge tracks without the expense of regauging lines. Three test trains were constructed, with the second set having completed reliability trials on the Yosan Line east of Matsuyama (in Shikoku) in September 2013. The third set was undertaking gauge changing trials at Shin-Yatsushiro Station (on Kyushu), commencing in 2014 for a proposed three-year period, however testing was suspended in December 2014 after accumulating approximating , following the discovery of defective thrust bearing oil seals on the bogies. The train was being trialled between Kumamoto, travelling on the narrow-gauge line to Shin-Yatsushiro, where a gauge changer was installed, so the GCT could be trialled on the Shinkansen line to Kagoshima. It was anticipated the train would travel approximately over the three-year trial. A new "full standard" Shinkansen line was opened in 2022 from Takeo Onsen to , with the Shin-Tosu – Takeo Onsen section of the Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen remaining narrow gauge. GCTs were proposed to provide Shinkansen service from the line's opening, however with the GCT being cancelled, JR Kyushu announced it would provide an interim 'relay' service. There are currently no further proposals for use of the GCT, nor any development work on it. == Competition with air ==

Compared with air transport, the Shinkansen has several advantages, including scheduling frequency and flexibility, punctual operation, comfortable seats, lower carbon emissions, and convenient city-centre terminals. Shinkansen fares are generally competitive with domestic air fares. From a speed and convenience perspective, the Shinkansen's market share has surpassed that of air travel for journeys of less than , while air and rail remain highly competitive with each other in the range and air has a higher market share for journeys of more than . During snowy weather, the Shinkansen is known to face fewer delays compared to air travel due to snow. One study done in 2016 concluded that the Tohoku Shinkansen between Tokyo and Aomori had substantially fewer days with delays longer than 30 minutes compared to air travel. • Tokyo – Nagoya (), Tokyo – Sendai (), Tokyo – Hanamaki (Morioka) (), Tokyo – Niigata (): There were air services between these cities, but they were withdrawn after Shinkansen services started. Shinkansen runs between these cities in about two hours or less. • Tokyo – Osaka (): The Shinkansen is dominant because of fast (2 hours 22 minutes) and frequent service (up to 17 trains per hour spaced 3 minutes apart during peak season, including 12 Nozomi services), holding around an 85% vs 15% lead in market share against air travel. • Tokyo – Okayama (), Tokyo – Hiroshima (): Shinkansen is reported to have increased its market share from ~40% to ~60% over the last decade. The Shinkansen takes about three to four hours and there are Nozomi trains every 30 minutes, but airlines may provide cheaper fares, attracting price-conscious passengers. • Tokyo – Fukuoka (): The Shinkansen takes about five hours on the fastest Nozomi, and discount carriers have made air travel far cheaper, so most people choose air. Additionally, unlike many cities, there is very little convenience advantage for the location of the Shinkansen stations of the two cities as Fukuoka Airport is located near the central Tenjin district, and the Fukuoka City Subway's Airport Line connects the Airport and Tenjin via Hakata Station and Haneda Airport is similarly conveniently located. • Osaka – Fukuoka (): The Shinkansen dominates with approximately 85% market share against air travel between the Keihanshin area and Fukuoka. From Shin-Osaka, Nozomi and Mizuho services take about two and a half hours, and the JR West Hikari Rail Star or JR West/JR Kyushu Sakura trains operate twice an hour, taking about 2 hours and 40 minutes between the two cities. • Tokyo – Aomori (): The fastest Shinkansen service between these cities is 3 hours. JAL is reported to have reduced the size of planes servicing this route since the Shinkansen extension opened in 2010. • Tokyo – Hokuriku (): The fastest Shinkansen service between these areas is 2 hours. ANA is reported to have reduced the number of services from Tokyo to Kanazawa and Toyama from 6 to 4 per day since the Shinkansen extension opened in 2015. The share of passengers travelling this route by air is reported to have dropped from 40% to 10% in the same period. == Outside Japan ==

on a test run on the Taiwan High Speed Rail in September 2013 based on the E2 Series Shinkansen, September 2018 in the United Kingdom, September 2009 Railways using Shinkansen technology are not limited to those in Japan. Existing Taiwan The 700T Series, operated by Taiwan High Speed Rail, is the first operational Shinkansen type exported outside Japan. Based on the 700 series, they were built by Kawasaki Heavy Industries and are operated as 12-car sets. They first entered service in January 2007, with a maximum speed of . A 0 Series Shinkansen front car which was used in Taiwan for testing is on display at Tainan HSR station. China The China Railway CRH2 is based on the E2-1000 series design. The trains are built by CSR Sifang Loco & Rolling stocks corporation under a license purchased in 2004 from a consortium formed of Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Mitsubishi Electric Corporation, and Hitachi. Trial services started in January 2007. United Kingdom The British Rail Class 395, operated by Southeastern, incorporates technology from the 400 Series Shinkansen. Part of the Hitachi A-Train AT300 InterCity family, twenty nine sets were ordered from Hitachi for commuter services on the High Speed 1 line. The trains entered service from June 2009 and operate at a maximum speed of 140 mph (225 km/h). A retired 0 Series Shinkansen front car was donated to the National Railway Museum, in 2000. Under construction India In December 2015, India and Japan signed an agreement for the construction of India's first high speed rail link connecting Mumbai to Ahmedabad, the intention being to initially operate imported E5 Series Shinkansen sets on the line. To be funded primarily through Japanese soft loans, the link was expected to cost up to US$18.6 billion and operational by 2024. The project has been delayed by several years, and forecast costs have risen. A tender for 24 modified E5 sets was issued in 2023, though the resulting offers were not taken up by India, who now desire E10 sets, for delivery in the 2030s. The Japanese Government agreed to gift one end of life E3 and E5 sets in 2025, with delivery in 2026. Under negotiation United States In 2014, it was announced that Texas Central Railway would build a ~ long line using the N700 series rolling stock. The trains are proposed to operate at over . Proposed subject to funding Thailand Japan will provide Shinkansen technology for a high-speed rail link between Bangkok and Chiang Mai under an agreement reached with Thailand on 27 May 2015. Total project costs are estimated in excess of 1 trillion yen ($8.1 billion). Several hurdles remain, however, including securing the funding. Potential opportunities Australia A private organization dedicated to aiding the Australian Government in delivering high speed rail, Consolidated Land and Rail Australia, has considered purchasing Shinkansen technology or SC Maglev rolling stock for a potential Melbourne-Canberra-Sydney-Brisbane line. In 2023, the High Speed Rail Authority was established by the Government. The Government committed AU$500 million to progress planning for a future high speed rail network – of this, AU$78.8 million was allocated to deliver the business case for the Sydney to Newcastle section, which is expected to be provided to the Government by the end of 2024. Japan Railways Group and Hitachi attended an industry briefing on 27 August 2024. Ireland As part of the Ireland 2040 infrastructural upgrade scheme, a high-speed rail network using Shinkansen technology is being investigated along the Cork-Dublin-Belfast axis, spanning the island of Ireland from north to south. United States and Canada The U.S. Federal Railroad Administration was in talks with a number of countries concerning high-speed rail, notably Japan, France and Spain. On 16 May 2009, FRA Deputy Chief Karen Rae expressed hope that Japan would offer its technical expertise to Canada and the United States. Transportation Secretary Ray LaHood indicated interest in test riding the Japanese Shinkansen in 2009. On 1 June 2009, JR Central Chairman, Yoshiyuki Kasai, announced plans to export both the N700 Series Shinkansen high-speed train system and the SCMaglev to international export markets, including the United States and Canada. Brazil Japan had promoted its Shinkansen technology to the Government of Brazil for use on the once planned high-speed rail set to link Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Campinas. On 14 November 2008, Japanese Deputy Prime Minister Tarō Asō and Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva talked about this rail project. President Lula asked a consortium of Japanese companies to participate in the bidding process. Prime Minister Aso concurred on the bilateral cooperation to improve rail infrastructure in Brazil, including the Rio–São Paulo–Campinas high-speed rail line. The Japanese consortium included the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, Mitsui & Co., Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Kawasaki Heavy Industries and Toshiba. Nothing was implemented. Vietnam Vietnam Railways was considering the use of Shinkansen technology for high-speed rail between the capital Hanoi and the southern commercial hub of Ho Chi Minh City, according to the Nihon Keizai Shimbun, citing an interview with Chief Executive Officer Nguyen Huu Bang. The Vietnamese government had already given basic approval for the Shinkansen system, although it still requires financing and formal consent from the prime minister. Vietnam rejected a funding proposal in 2010, so funding for the $56 billion project is uncertain. Hanoi was exploring additional Japanese funding Official Development Assistance as well as funds from the World Bank and Asian Development Bank. The line would replace the current colonial-era rail line. Vietnam hoped to launch high-speed trains by 2020 and planned to start by building three sections, including a stretch between the central coastal cities of Da Nang and Huế, seen as potentially most profitable. Vietnam Railways had sent engineers to Central Japan Railway Company for technical training. == See also ==