Legend , surrounded by settlers, commanding
Varuna (the
Hindu god of water) to part the seas In stories of the
Dashavatara from
Hindu mythology, the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the axe-wielding warrior sage
Parashurama, the sixth
avatar (incarnation) of
Vishnu. As a result, Kerala is traditionally referred to as
Parashurama Kshetram ("The Land of Parashurama"). According to legend, Parashurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded to the point where it landed. This land that emerged extended from
Gokarna to
Kanyakumari. The land that emerged was saline and uninhabitable, so Parashurama invoked the snake king
Vasuki, who spat holy poison to purify the soil, transforming it into fertile land. Out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as guardians of the land. The legend was expanded and codified in the 17th or 18th century text
Keralolpathi. It links the origin of early Kerala institutionssuch as land tenure and administrationto Parashurama's story. In medieval times, the
Chera king
Chenkuttuvan may have emulated the Parashurama tradition by throwing his spear into the sea to symbolise his lordship over it. A prominent
Puranic figure associated with Kerala is
Mahabali, an
asura and archetypal just king who is said to have ruled the earth from Kerala. He defeated the
devas in battle, driving them into exile. In response, the devas appealed to Vishnu, who assumed his fifth avatar as
Vamana and, to restore order, pushed Mahabali down to
Patala (the netherworld). According to popular belief, Mahabali returns to Kerala once a year, which is commemorated as the
Onam festival. The
Matsya Purana, one of the oldest among the 18
Puranas, situates the story of
Matsyathe first avatar of Vishnuand king
Manu, the first man and ruler of the regionin the
Malaya Mountains of Kerala and
Tamil Nadu.
Pre-history erected by Neolithic people in
Marayur A substantial portion of present-day Kerala is believed to have been submerged under the sea in ancient times. The discovery of marine fossils near Changanassery supports this hypothesis. Prehistoric archaeological discoveries in Kerala include
Neolithic-era
dolmens in the
Marayur region of the Idukki district, locally known as
muniyarafrom
muni (hermit or sage) and
ara (dolmen). Rock engravings in the
Edakkal caves in
Wayanad date back to the Neolithic period, around 6000 BCE. Archaeological studies have identified
Mesolithic, Neolithic and
Megalithic sites throughout the region. These findings indicate that the development of early Kerala society and culture began in the
Paleolithic Age and progressed through the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic periods. Foreign cultural interactions also played a role in shaping this development; some historians suggest possible connections with the
Indus Valley Civilisation during the late
Bronze Age and early
Iron Age.
Ancient history map. The spice trade was along the water routes (blue). Kerala has been a major spice exporter since at least 3000 BCE, according to
Sumerian records, and it is continues to be referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India". The region's spices attracted ancient
Babylonians,
Assyrians, and
Egyptians to the Malabar Coast during the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE.
Arabs and
Phoenicians also established trade links with Kerala during this period. The land of Keralaputra was one of four independent kingdoms in southern India during the time of Emperor Ashoka, alongside the
Chola,
Pandya, and
Satiyaputra kingdoms. Scholars generally identify Keralaputra as another name for the
Cheras, the earliest major dynasty based in Kerala. These southern territories once shared a common language and cultural framework, within a region historically known as
Tamilakam. While the Cheras governed most of what is now Kerala, the southern tip of the region fell under the control of the
Pandyas, whose trading port is sometimes identified in ancient Western sources as
Nelcynda (or Neacyndi). Later, control of the region alternated among the Pandyas, Cheras, and Cholas. The
Ays and
Mushikas were two other dynasties of ancient Kerala, located to the south and north of the Chera territory, respectively. By the last centuries BCE, the coast had become an important hub for Greek and Roman trade, particularly in
black pepper. The Cheras maintained commercial links with
Ancient China,
West Asia, Egypt, Greece, and the
Roman Empire. In foreign trade records, the region was referred to as Male or
Malabar. Principal ports of the time included
Muziris, Berkarai, and Nelcynda. The value of Rome's annual trade with Kerala has been estimated at around 50 million
sesterces. Contemporary
Sangam literature describes Roman ships arriving at Muziris, laden with gold in exchange for pepper. One of the earliest Western traders to navigate the monsoon winds to reach Kerala was
Eudoxus of Cyzicus, who made the voyage around 118 or 166 BCE under the patronage of
Ptolemy VIII, king of the
Hellenistic Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. Roman establishments in the region's port citiesincluding a temple of
Augustus and barracks for garrisoned Roman soldiersare recorded in the
Tabula Peutingeriana, the only surviving map of the Roman
cursus publicus. Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala. The Jewish connection with Kerala is believed to date back to 573 BCE. Arab traders had links with Kerala from at least the 4th century BCE;
Herodotus (484–413 BCE) noted that goods brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to Jews in Eden. In the 4th century CE, some Christians migrated from
Persia and joined the early
Syrian Christian community, which traces its origins to the evangelistic activities of
Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century CE. The term Mappilaoriginally an honorific applied to esteemed foreign visitorslater became associated with the descendants of Jewish, Syrian Christian, and Muslim immigrants, leading to the terms
Juda Mappilas,
Nasrani Mappilas, and
Muslim Mappilas, respectively. According to the traditions of these communities, some of the earliest religious establishments in India were built in Kerala. the
Cheraman Juma Masjid (established in 629 CE), India's first mosque, and the
Paradesi Synagogue (built in 1568 CE), the oldest active synagogue in the
Commonwealth of Nations.
Medieval period granted to
Saint Thomas Christians testify that merchant guilds and trade corporations played a very significant role in the economy and social life during the Kulasekhara period. A
second Chera kingdom (c. 800–1102), also known as the Kulasekhara dynasty of
Mahodayapuram, was founded by
Kulasekhara Varman and governed over a territory comprising most of present-day Kerala and parts of modern Tamil Nadu. During the early phase of the Kulasekara period, the southern regionfrom
Nagerkovil to
Thiruvallawas controlled by the
Ay dynasty. By the 10th century, however, the Ays had lost their power, and the region was incorporated into the Kulashekara realm. Under Kulashekhara rule, Kerala experienced a flourishing period marked by developments in art, literature, trade, and the
Bhakti movement within Hinduism. It was during this time that a distinct Keralite identity began to emerge, separate from Tamil culture, particularly through linguistic differentiation. For administrative purposes, the kingdom was divided into provinces governed by local chieftains called
Naduvazhis. Each province was further subdivided into
desams, which were overseen by Desavazhis. Social structures became increasingly rigid, and
caste divisions deepened. The Kulashekhara dynasty ultimately fell in 1102 CE following a combined assault by the
Later Pandyas and
Later Cholas.
Colonial rule to reach Kerala (indicated in black) During the
High and
Late Middle Ages, Arab traders held a maritime monopoly over the spice trade in the
Indian Ocean. This dominance was challenged during the European
Age of Discovery when the spice tradeparticularly in black pepperbecame a major focus of European commercial activity. By the 15th century, the Portuguese had begun asserting control over eastern maritime routes, culminating in
Vasco Da Gama's arrival at
Kappad, near
Kozhikode (Calicut), in 1498. The
Zamorin of Kozhikode granted the Portuguese permission to trade with his subjects, leading to the establishment of a prosperous Portuguese
factory and fort. Despite these advances, the Portuguese faced significant resistance from the Zamorin's naval forces, particularly under the command of the
Kunjali Marakkarsadmirals of Kozhikodewho launched effective maritime campaigns. This resistance eventually forced the Portuguese to seek a treaty. In 1571, the Zamorin's forces defeated the Portuguese in the
Battle of Chaliyam Fort, marking a major setback for Portuguese ambitions in the region. The Portuguese were eventually supplanted by the
Dutch East India Company, which capitalised on ongoing conflicts between the Kozhikode and Kochi to gain control over trade in the region. However, the Dutch too faced military resistance, most notably from
Marthanda Varma of the
Travancore royal family. After a decisive Dutch defeat at the
Battle of Colachel in 1741, the Treaty of Mavelikkara was signed in 1753, forcing the Dutch to withdraw from regional political affairs and confining their role to trade. Marthanda Varma continued his military campaigns, establishing Travancore as the preeminent power in Kerala. In 1766,
Hyder Ali, ruler of
Mysore,
invaded northern Kerala, and his son and successor,
Tipu Sultan,
launched military campaigns against the expanding
British East India Company. These confrontations contributed to two of the four
Anglo-Mysore Wars. By the early 1790s, Tipu Sultan was forced to cede the
Malabar district and
South Kanara to the British, and these regions were annexed into the
Madras Presidency of
British India in 1792. The British East India Company also secured tributary alliances with Kochi in 1791 and Travancore in 1795. By the end of 18th century, the entirety of Kerala was either directly administered by the British or under their
suzerainty. In the 20th century, Kerala was the site of several major uprisings during the Indian independence movement. Among the most notable was the 1921
Malabar Rebellion, in which Mappila Muslims of the Malabar region rioted against Hindu
zamindars (landlords) and British colonial authorities. Social reform moments also gained momentum during this period, particularly those challenging caste-based discrimination. A major milestone was the
Temple Entry Proclamation of 1936 in Travancore, which granted lower-caste Hindus the right to enter temples previously restricted to upper castes.
State of India After the
Partition of India in 1947 into the independent dominions of India and Pakistan, the princely states of Travancore and Kochi acceded to the
Union of India. On 1 July 1949, the two states were merged to form
Travancore-Cochin. On 1 November 1956, the
taluk of
Kasargod from the South Kanara district of Madras, the
Malabar district of
Madras State (excluding
Gudalur taluk of
Nilgiris district,
Lakshadweep,
Topslip, and the
Attappadi forest east of Anakatti), and the state of Travancore-Cochinexcluding four southern taluks (
Kanyakumari district and Shenkottai taluks), which were transferred to Tamil Naduwere merged to form the state of Kerala under the
States Reorganisation Act. A
Communist-led government under
E. M. S. Namboodiripad was formed following the first elections for the new Kerala Legislative Assembly in 1957. == Geography ==