The military history of China stretches from roughly 1900 BC to the present day. Chinese armies were advanced and powerful, especially after the
Warring States period. The
shi knights had a strict code of
chivalry. During the Shang and Western Zhou eras, warfare was seen as an aristocratic affair, complete with protocols that may be compared to the chivalry of the European knight. Under the Shang and Zhou, these armies were able to expand China's territory and influence from a narrow part of the Yellow River valley to all of the North China plain. Equipped with bronze weapons, bows, and armor, these armies won victories against the sedentary
Dongyi to the East and South, which were the main direction of expansion, as well as defending the western border against the nomadic incursions of the Xirong. However, after the collapse of the Zhou dynasty in 771 BC when the
Xirong captured its capital
Haojing, China collapsed into a plethora of small states, who warred frequently with each other. The competition between these states would eventually produce the professional armies that marked the Imperial Era of China.
Prehistory and Shang dynasty Early Bronze Age Chinese cities were characterized by massive defensive walls. The
Erlitou culture's bronze workshops probably gave it a decisive edge over competing groups. Armies were probably relatively ineffective given the prevalence of extensive fortifications, although the Erlitou culture probably succeeded in breaching these occasionally since they were able to expand the area of their control. Starting from the 3rd Millennium BC and throughout the 2nd Millennium BC, there is a correlation between elite status and military status in tomb artefacts.
Western Zhou and Spring and Autumn period While chariots had been used in battle previously, only in the Western Zhou era were they used in large numbers. The Zhou conquest of the Shang may have been linked to their use of the chariot. Although most soldiers were conscripts, it was also common to select soldiers based on specific qualifications. The Confucian adviser Xun Zi claimed that foot soldiers from the Wei state were required to wear armor and helmets, shoulder a crossbow with fifty arrows, strap a spear and sword, carry three days' supply of rations, and all the while march 100
li (41.6 km, based on the Eastern Zhou li) in a day. When a man meets this requirement, his household would be exempted from all
corvée labor obligations. He would also be given special tax benefits on land and housing. However, this policy made soldiers in the Wei state difficult to replace. In addition, cavalry was introduced. The first recorded use of cavalry took place in the Battle of Maling, in which general
Pang Juan of
Wei led his division of 5,000 cavalry into a trap by
Qi forces. In 307 BC,
King Wuling of Zhao ordered the adoption of nomadic clothing in order to train his own division of cavalry archers. In the field of military planning, the niceties of chivalrous warfare were abandoned in favor of a general who would ideally be a master of maneuver, illusion, and deception. He had to be ruthless in searching for the advantage, and an organizer in integrating units under him.
Qin–Han assembled for the tomb complex of
Qin Shi Huang (r. 221–210 BC) (202 BC – 220 AD) armor from the Han dynasty In 221 BC, the Qin unified China and ushered in the Imperial Era of Chinese history. Although it only lasted 15 years, Qin established institutions that would last for millennia. Qin Shi Huan, titling himself as the "First Emperor", standardized writing systems, weights, coinage, and even the axle lengths of carts. To reduce the chance of rebellion, he made the private possession of weapons illegal. In order to increase the rapid deployment of troops, thousands of miles of roads were built, along with canals that allowed boats to travel long distances. For the rest of Chinese history, a centralized empire was the norm. However, protecting the borders required a significant investment. Manning the stations of the Great Wall took about ten thousand men. To support them, fifty to sixty thousand soldier-farmers were moved to the frontiers in order to reduce the cost of transporting supplies. These drafted farmers were not good cavalry troops, so a professional army emerged on the frontiers. These consisted of northern Han mercenaries, convicts working for their freedom, and subjected "Southern" Xiong-nu living within Han territory. By 31 BC, the Han dynasty abolished universal military conscription that was passed down from the Warring States. In the South, China's territory was roughly doubled as the Chinese conquered much of what is now Southern China, and extended the frontier from the Yangtze to Vietnam. Armies during the Qin and
Han dynasties largely inherited their institutions from the earlier Warring States period, with the major exception that cavalry forces were becoming more and more important, due to the threat of the Xiongnu. Under
Emperor Wu of Han, the Chinese launched a
series of massive cavalry expeditions against the Xiongnu, defeating them and conquering much of what is now Northern China, Western China, Mongolia, Central Asia, and Korea. After these victories, Chinese armies were tasked with the goal of holding the new territories against incursions and revolts by peoples such as the
Qiang,
Xianbei and Xiongnu who had come under Chinese rule. The structure of the army also changed in this period. While the Qin had utilized a conscript army, by
Eastern Han, the army was made up largely of volunteers and conscription could be avoided by paying a fee. Those who presented the government with supplies, horses, or slaves were also exempted from conscription.
Three Kingdoms–Jin The end of the Han dynasty saw a massive agrarian uprising that had to be quelled by local governors, who seized the opportunity to form their own armies. The central army disintegrated and was replaced by a series of local warlords, who fought for power until most of the North was unified by
Cao Cao, who laid the foundation for the Wei dynasty, which ruled most of China. However, much of Southern China was ruled by two rival Kingdoms,
Shu Han and
Wu. As a result, this era is known as the
Three Kingdoms. Under the Wei dynasty, the military system changed from the centralized military system of the Han. Unlike the Han, whose forces were concentrated into a central army of volunteer soldiers, Wei's forces depended on the Buqu, a group for whom soldiering was a hereditary profession. These "military households" were given land to farm, but their children could only marry into the families of other "military households". In effect, the military career was inherited; when a soldier or commander died or became unable to fight, a male relative would inherit his position. These hereditary soldiers provided the bulk of the infantry. For the purpose of cavalry, the Wei was similar to the previous Han dynasty in recruiting large numbers of Xiongnu that were settled in southern Shanxi. In addition, provincial armies, which were very weak under the Han, became the bulk of the army under the Wei, for whom the central army was held mainly as a reserve. This military system was also adopted by the Jin dynasty, who succeeded the Wei and unified China. Advances such as the
stirrup helped make cavalry forces more effective.
Era of division figurine of a cataphract horse and rider, created during the
Northern Wei dynasty (386–534 AD) In 304 AD, a major event shook China. The Jin dynasty, who had unified China 24 years earlier, was tottering in collapse due to a
major civil war. Seizing this opportunity, Xiong-nu chieftain Liu Yuan and his forces revolted against their Han Chinese overlords. He was followed by many other barbarian leaders, and these rebels were called the "Wu Hu" or literally "Five barbarian tribes". By 316 AD, the Jin had lost all territory north of the Huai river. From this point on, much of North China was ruled by Sinicized barbarian tribes such as the Xianbei, while southern China remained under Han Chinese rule, a period known as the Era of Division. During this era, the military forces of both Northern and southern regimes diverged and developed very differently.
Northern Northern China was devastated by the
Wu Hu uprisings. After the initial uprising, the various tribes fought among themselves in a chaotic era known as the
Sixteen Kingdoms. Although brief unifications of the North, such as
Later Zhao and
Former Qin, occurred, these were relatively short-lived. During this era, the Northern armies, were mainly based around nomadic cavalry, but also employed Chinese as foot soldiers and siege personnel. This military system was rather improvising and ineffective, and the states established by the Wu Hu were mostly destroyed by the Jin dynasty or the Xianbei.
Southern Southern Chinese dynasties, being descended from the Han and Jin, prided themselves on being the successors of the Chinese civilization and disdained the Northern dynasties, who they viewed as barbarian usurpers. Southern armies continued the military system of Buqu or hereditary soldiers from the Jin dynasty. However, the growing power of aristocratic landowners, who also provided many of the buqu, meant that the Southern dynasties were very unstable; after the fall of the Jin, four dynasties ruled in just two centuries. This is not to say that the Southern armies did not work well. Southern armies won great victories in the late 4th century, such as the battle of Fei at which an 80,000-man Jin army crushed the 300,000-man army of Former Qin, an empire founded by one of the Wu Hu tribes that had briefly unified North China. In addition, under the brilliant general Liu Yu, Chinese armies briefly reconquered much of North China.
Sui–Tang tombs at the
Qianling Mausoleum In 581 AD, the Chinese Yang Jian forced the Xianbei ruler to abdicate, founding the Sui dynasty and restoring Chinese rule in the North. By 589 AD, he had unified much of China. The Sui's unification of China sparked a new golden age. During the Sui and Tang, Chinese armies, based on the Fubing system invented during the era of division, won military successes that restored the empire of the Han dynasty and reasserted Chinese power. The Tang created large contingents of powerful heavy cavalry. A key component of the success of Sui and Tang armies, just like the earlier Qin and Han armies, was the adoption of large elements of cavalry. These powerful horsemen, combined with the superior firepower of the Chinese infantry (powerful missile weapons such as recurve crossbows), made Chinese armies powerful. However, during the Tang dynasty the
fubing (府兵) system began to break down. Based on state ownership of the land under the
juntian system, the prosperity of the Tang dynasty meant that the state's lands were being bought up in ever increasing quantities. Consequently, the state could no longer provide land to the farmers, and the
juntian system broke down. By the 8th century, the Tang had reverted to the centralized military system of the Han. However, this also did not last, and it broke down during the disorder of the
An Lushan, which saw many
fanzhen or local generals become extraordinarily powerful. These
fanzhen were so powerful they collected taxes, raised armies, and made their positions hereditary. Because of this, the central army of the Tang was greatly weakened. Eventually, the Tang dynasty collapsed and the various
fanzhen were made into separate kingdoms, a situation that would last until the
Song dynasty. During the Tang, professional military writing and schools began to be set up to train officers, an institution that would be expanded during the Song. Tibetan tradition says that the Tang dynasty seized the Tibetan capital at
Lhasa in 650. In 763 the Tibetans captured the Tang capital at
Chang'an, for fifteen days during the
An Shi Rebellion. In 756, over 4,000 Arab mercenaries joined the Chinese against
An Lushan. They remained in China, and some of them were ancestors of the
Hui people. During the Tang dynasty, 3,000 Chinese soldiers, and 3,000 Muslim soldiers were traded to each other in an agreement.
Liao, Song and Jurchen Jin During the Song dynasty, the emperors were focused on curbing the power of the Fanzhen, local generals who they viewed as responsible for the collapse of the Tang dynasty. Local power was curbed and most power was centralized in the government, along with the army. In addition, the Song adopted a system in which commands by generals were ad hoc and temporary; this was to prevent the troops from becoming attached to their generals, who could potentially rebel. Successful generals such as
Yue Fei and Liu Zen were persecuted by the Song Court who feared they would rebel. Although the system worked when it came to quelling rebellions, it was a failure in defending China and asserting its power. The Song had to rely on new gunpowder weapons introduced during the late Tang and bribes to fend off attacks by its enemies, such as the Liao (Khitans), West Xia (
Tanguts), Jin (Jurchens), and Mongol Empire, as well as an expanded army of over 1 million men. The Song was greatly disadvantaged by the fact their neighbors had taken advantage of the era of chaos following the collapse of the Tang to advance into Northern China unimpeded. The Song also lost the horse-producing regions which made their cavalry extremely inferior. The military technology of the Song included gunpowder weapons such as
fire lances, cast-iron gunpowder bombs, and
rockets were employed in large numbers. The Song government also created
China's first standing navy. This military technology and
prosperous economy were key for the Song army to fend off invaders who could not be bribed with "tribute payments," such as the Khitans and Jur'chens. Song forces held off Central Asian Mongol armies longer than did other settled peoples, until the fall of the Song in 1279.
Yuan Captures General
Pang De", a
Ming dynasty painting by Shang Xi Founded by the Mongols who conquered Song China, the Yuan had the same military system as most nomadic peoples to China's north, focused mainly on nomadic cavalry, who were organized based on households and who were led by leaders appointed by the khan. The Mongol invasion started in earnest only when they acquired their first navy, mainly from Chinese Song defectors. Liu Cheng, a Chinese Song commander who defected to the Mongols, suggested a switch in tactics, and assisted the Mongols in building their own fleet. Many Chinese served in the Mongol navy and army and assisted them in their conquest of Song. However, in the conquest of China, the Mongols also adopted gunpowder weapons such as the thundercrash bomb and thousands of Chinese infantry and naval forces into the Mongol army. Another weapon adopted by the Mongols were
Saracen counterweight
trebuchets designed by Muslim engineers; these proved decisive in the
Siege of Xiangyang, whose capture by the Mongols precipitated the beginning of the end for the Song dynasty. The Mongol military system began to collapse after the 14th century and by 1368 the Mongols was driven out by the Chinese Ming dynasty. The Mongols under
Genghis Khan and
Hulagu also brought Chinese artillery specialists within their armies who specialized in
mangonels, to Persia. During the Mongol invasion of Iraq, 1,000 Chinese crossbowmen who utilized fire arrows participated in the invasion, along with the Mongol tribesmen. In 1258 the commander of the Mongol
Hulagu Khan's forces besieging Baghdad was a Chinese General
Guo Kan. The Chinese General Guo Kan was then made Governor of Baghdad by Hulagu, who also brought Chinese technicians specializing in hydraulics to engineer the
Tigris–
Euphrates basin irrigation systems. This resulted in the Middle East being permeated by major Chinese influence during Hulagu's reign. Many Han Chinese and Khitan defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin. Two Han Chinese leaders,
Shi Tianze, (, Liu Ni), and the Khitan () defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ogödei Khan. Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols. There were 4 Han Tumens and 3 Khitan Tumens, with each Tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The three Khitan Generals Shimobeidier (), Tabuyir () and Xiaozhacizhizizhongxi () commanded the three Khitan Tumens and the four Han Generals Zhang Rou, Yan Shi, Shi Tianze, and Liu Heima commanded the four Han tumens under Ogödei Khan. The Mongols received defections from Han Chinese and Khitans while the Jin were abandoned by their own Jurchen officers. Shi Tianze was a Han Chinese who lived in the
Jin dynasty (1115–1234). Interethnic marriage between Han and Jurchen became common at this time. His father was Shi Bingzhi (史秉直, Shih Ping-chih). Shi Bingzhi was married to a Jurchen woman (surname Na-ho) and a Han Chinese woman (surname Chang), it is unknown which of them was Shi Tianze's mother. Shi Tianze was married to two Jurchen women, a Han Chinese woman, and a Korean woman, and his son Shi Gang was born to one of his Jurchen wives. His Jurchen wives' surnames were Mo-nien and Na-ho, his Korean wife's surname was Li, and his Han Chinese wife's surname was Shi. Shi Tianze (Shih T'ien-tse), (Chang Jou, ), and (Yen Shih, ) and other high ranking Chinese who served in the Jin dynasty and defected to the Mongols helped build the structure for the administration of the new state.
Chagaan (Tsagaan) and Zhang Rou jointly launched an attack on the Song dynasty ordered by
Töregene Khatun.
Ming The early Ming Emperors from Hongwu to Zhengde continued Yuan practices such as hereditary military institutions, demanding Korean concubines and eunuchs, having Muslim eunuchs, wearing Mongol style clothing and Mongol hats, engaging in archery and horseback riding, having Mongols serve in the Ming military, patronizing Tibetan Buddhism, with the early Ming Emperors seeking to project themselves as "universal rulers" to various peoples such as Central Asian Muslims, Tibetans, and Mongols, modeled after the Mongol Khagan, however, this history of Ming universalism has been obscured and denied by historians who covered it up and presented the Ming as xenophobes seeking to expunge Mongol influence and presenting while they presented the Qing and Yuan as "universal" rulers in contrast to the Ming. A cavalry-based army modeled on the Yuan military was implemented by the Hongwu and Yongle Emperors. Hongwu's army and officialdom incorporated Mongols. Mongols were retained by the Ming within its territory. in Guangxi Mongol archers participated in a war against Miao minorities. Math, calligraphy, literature, equestrianism, archery, music, and rites were the
Six Arts. At the
Guozijian, law, math, calligraphy,
equestrianism, and archery were emphasized by the Ming
Hongwu Emperor in addition to Confucian classics and also required in the
imperial examinations. Archery and equestrianism were added to the exam by Hongwu in 1370 like how archery and equestrianism were required for non-military officials at the 武舉 College of War in 1162 by the Song
Emperor Xiaozong. The area around the Meridian Gate of Nanjing was used for archery by guards and generals under Hongwu. The Imperial exam included archery. Archery on horseback was practiced by Chinese living near the frontier. Wang Ju's writings on archery were followed during the Ming and Yuan and the Ming developed new methods of archery. Contests in archery were held in the capital for Garrison of Guard soldiers who were handpicked. The Ming focused on building up a powerful standing army that could drive off attacks by foreign barbarians. Beginning in the 14th century, the Ming armies drove out the Mongols and expanded China's territories to include Yunnan, Mongolia, Tibet, much of Xinjiang and Vietnam. The Ming also engaged in Overseas expeditions which included one
violent conflict in Sri Lanka. Ming armies incorporated gunpowder weapons into their military force, speeding up a development that had been prevalent since the Song. Ming military institutions were largely responsible for the success of Ming's armies. The early Ming's military was organized by the Wei-suo system, which split the army up into numerous "Wei" or commands throughout the Ming frontiers. Each wei was to be self-sufficient in agriculture, with the troops stationed there farming as well as training. This system also forced soldiers to serve hereditarily in the army; although effective in initially taking control of the empire, this military system proved unviable in the long run and collapsed in the 1430s, with Ming reverted to a professional volunteer army similar to Tang, Song and Later Han. Throughout most of the Ming's history, the Ming armies were successful in defeating foreign powers such as the Mongols and Japanese and expanding China's influence. However, with the little Ice Age in the 17th century, the Ming dynasty was faced with a disastrous famine and its military forces disintegrated as a result of the famines spurring from this event. The Chinese defeated the Portuguese at the
First Battle of Tamao (1521) and at the
Second Battle of Tamao (1522) Chinese ships knocked out two Portuguese ships, who were armed with gunpowder weapons, and forced the Portuguese to retreat. The Ming dynasty defeated the Dutch in the
Sino–Dutch conflicts in 1622–1624 over the
Penghu islands and at the
Battle of Liaoluo Bay in 1633. In 1662, Chinese and European arms clashed when a Ming-loyalist army of 25,000 led by
Koxinga forced
Dutch East India Company garrison of 2,000 on
Taiwan into surrender, after a final assault during a
seven-month siege. According to
Frederick Coyett's account written after the siege to absolve himself of the Dutch defeat, the alleged final blow to the company's defense came when a Dutch defector, who would warn Koxinga of a life-threatening bombardment, had pointed the inactive besieging army to the weak points of the Dutch
star-shaped fort. This claim of a Dutch defector only appears in Coyett's account and Chinese records make no such mention of any defector. While the mainstay of the Chinese forces were archers, which however the European eyewitnesses did not judge as effective as the Dutch batteries. The Dutch lost five ships and 130 men in an attempt to relieve the siege of the fortress.
Qing ; ink and color on silk; 1760 AD; inscribed, and with one seal of the
Qianlong Emperor. The
Qing dynasty, founded by the
Manchus, was, like the Yuan a
conquest dynasty. The Manchus were a sedentary agricultural people who lived in fixed villages, farmed crops, practiced hunting and mounted archery., In the late sixteenth century,
Nurhaci, founder of the
Later Jin dynasty (1616–1636) and originally a Ming vassal, began organizing "
Banners", military-social units that included Jurchen, Han Chinese, Korean and Mongol elements under direct command of the Emperor. The main Manchu tactics were using infantry with bows and arrows, swords, and pikes while cavalry was kept in the rear. Unlike the Song and Ming, however, the Qing armies neglected firearms, and did not develop them in any significant way. The Qing armies also contained a much higher proportion of cavalry than earlier Chinese dynasties.
Hong Taiji, the son of Nurhaci, recognized that Han Chinese were needed in the conquest of the Ming, as he explained why he treated the Ming defector General Hong Chengchou leniently. Ming artillery was responsible for many victories. The Ming would not be easily defeated unless musket and cannon wielding Han Chinese troops were added to the existing banners. Han Chinese Generals who defected to the Manchu were often
given women from the Imperial Aisin Gioro family in marriage while the ordinary soldiers who defected were often given non-royal Manchu women as wives. Nurhaci married one of his granddaughters to the Ming General
Li Yongfang after he surrendered the city of
Fushun in Liaoning in 1618 and a mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1,000 couples was arranged by Prince Yoto and Hongtaiji in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups. The Qing differentiated between Han Bannermen and ordinary Han civilians. Han Chinese who defected up to 1644 and joined the Eight Banners were made bannermen, giving them social and legal privileges in addition to being acculturated to Manchu culture. Han defected to the Qing and swelled the ranks of the Eight Banners so much that ethnic Manchus became a minority, constituting only 16% in 1648, Han Bannermen 75%, and Mongol Bannermen making up the rest. In 1644, the invading army was multi-ethnic, with Han, Mongols, and Manchu banners. The political divide was between Han Chinese non bannermen and the "conquest elite", made up of Han Chinese bannermen, nobles, Mongols and Manchu; ethnicity was not the factor. Among the Banners, gunpowder weapons like muskets and artillery were specifically wielded by the Chinese Banners. Bannermen made up the majority of governors in the early Qing and were the ones who governed and administered China after the conquest, stabilizing Qing rule. Han Bannermen dominated the post of governor-general in the time of the Shunzhi and Kangxi Emperors, and also the post of governors, largely excluding ordinary Han civilians from the posts. The Qing relied on the Green Standard soldiers, made up of Han Chinese who had defected, to help rule northern China. Green Standard Han Chinese troops governed locally while Han Chinese Bannermen, Mongol Bannermen, and Manchu Bannermen were brought only into emergency situations where there was sustained military resistance. Since it was not possible for only Manchus to conquer southern China, Ming Han Chinese armies conquered the territory for them. Three Liaodong Han Bannermen officers who played a great role in the conquest of southern China were
Shang Kexi,
Geng Zhongming, and
Kong Youde, who then governed southern China autonomously as viceroys for the Qing. Wu, Geng, and Shang's son,
Shang Zhixin, in the early 1660s began to feel threatened by the increasing control from the north, and decided they had no choice but to revolt. The ensuing
Revolt of the Three Feudatories lasted for eight years. At the peak of the rebels' fortunes, they extended their control as far north as the
Yangtze River, nearly establishing a divided China. Wu then hesitated to go further north, not being able to coordinate strategy with his allies, and the Kangxi Emperor was able to unify his forces for a counterattack led by a new generation of Manchu generals. By 1681, the Qing government had established control over a ravaged southern China from which it took several decades to recover. Manchu Generals and Bannermen were initially put to shame by the better performance of the Han Chinese Green Standard Army, who fought better than them against the rebels and this was noted by the Kangxi Emperor, leading him to task Generals Sun Sike, Wang Jinbao, and Zhao Liangdong to lead Green Standard Soldiers to crush the rebels. The Qing thought that Han Chinese were superior at battling other Han people and so used the Green Standard Army as the dominant and majority army in crushing the rebels instead of Bannermen. In 1652–1689, during the
Sino-Russian border conflicts, the Qing dynasty engaged and pushed back about 2,000 Russian Cossacks in a series of intermittent skirmishes. The frontier in the south-west was extended slowly, in 1701 the Qing defeated
Tibetans at the
Battle of Dartsedo. The
Dzungar Khanate conquered the Uyghurs in the
Dzungar conquest of Altishahr and seized control of Tibet. Han Chinese
Green Standard Army soldiers and Manchu bannermen were commanded by the Han Chinese General Yue Zhongqi in the
Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720) which expelled the Dzungars from Tibet and placed it under Qing rule. At multiple places such as Lhasa, Batang, Dartsendo, Lhari, Chamdo, and Litang, Green Standard troops were garrisoned throughout the Dzungar war. During the reign of the
Qianlong Emperor in the mid-late 18th century, they launched the
Ten Great Campaigns resulting in victories over the
Dzungar Khanate and the
Kingdom of Nepal; the Manchus drove the
Gurkhas out of Tibet and only stopped their chase near
Kathmandu. After the demise of the Dzunghar Khanate, the Manchu authority in Tibet faced only weak opposition. In 1841, the
Sino-Sikh war ended with the expulsion of the
Sikh army. A British officer said of Qing forces during the
First Opium War, "The Chinese are robust muscular fellows, and no cowards; the Tartars desperate; but neither are well commanded nor acquainted with European warfare. Having had, however, experience of three of them, I am inclined to supposed that a Tartar bullet is not a whit softer than a French one." Manchus are called "Tartars" in the text. Southern Chinese coolies served with the French and British forces against the Qing: "The Chinese coolies entertained in 1857 from the inhabitants of South China, renegades though they were, served the British faithfully and cheerfully before Canton, and throughout the operations in North China in 1860 they likewise proved invaluable. Their coolness under fire was admirable. At the assault of the Peiho Forts in 1860 they carried the French ladders to the ditch, and, standing in the water up to their necks, supported them with their hands to enable the storming party to cross. It was not usual to take them into action; they, however, bore the dangers of a distant fire with the greatest composure, evincing a strong desire to close with their compatriots, and engage them in mortal combat with their bamboos.—(Fisher.)" escorting
Empress Dowager Cixi back to the
Forbidden City in 1902 During the
Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864), the rebel forces led by able generals such as
Shi Dakai were well organized and tactically innovative. After the rebel armies defeated Manchu generals in a series of battles, the Qing government allowed armies made up of foreigners, such as the
Ever Victorious Army, and eventually responded by forming armies mainly composed of Han Chinese, and under Han Chinese commanders such as
Zeng Guofan,
Zuo Zongtang,
Li Hongzhang and
Yuan Shikai. Examples of these armies were the
Xiang Army and the
Huai Army. The Qing also absorbed bandit armies and Generals who defected to the Qing side during rebellions, such as the Muslim Generals
Ma Zhan'ao,
Ma Qianling,
Ma Haiyan, and
Ma Julung. There were also armies composed of
Chinese Muslims led by Muslim Generals like
Dong Fuxiang,
Ma Anliang,
Ma Fuxiang, and
Ma Fuxing who commanded the
Kansu Braves. Local officials could also take command of military affairs, such as the father of
Yang Zengxin during the
Panthay Rebellion. The "First Chinese Regiment" (
Weihaiwei Regiment) which was praised for its performance, consisted of Chinese collaborators serving in the British military. ==Modernization==