On Tawhid Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab sought to
revive and purify
Islam from what he perceived as non-Islamic popular religious beliefs and practices by returning to what, he believed, were the
fundamental principles of the Islamic religion. His works were generally short, full of quotations from the ''
Qur'an and Hadith, such as his main and foremost theological treatise, Kitāb at-Tawḥīd'' (; "The Book of Oneness"). and denounced those religious beliefs and practices widespread amongst the people of
Najd. Following Ibn Taymiyya's teachings on
Tawhid, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab believed that much of Najd had descended into superstitious folk religion akin to the period of
Jahiliyya (pre-Islamic era) and denounced much of their beliefs as
polytheism (
shirk). Based on the doctrine of
Tawhid espoused in
Kitab al-Tawhid, the followers of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab referred themselves by the designation "
Al-Muwahhidun" (Unitarians). The "core" of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teaching is found in
Kitāb at-Tawḥīd, a theological treatise which draws from material in the ''Qur'an
and the recorded doings and sayings of the Islamic prophet Muhammad in the Hadith literature. It preaches that worship in Islam includes conventional acts of worship such as the five daily prayers (Salat); fasting (Sawm); supplication (Dua); seeking protection or refuge (Istia'dha
); seeking help (Ist'ana
and Istigatha'') of Allah. According to
David Commins, various
Muslims throughout history had held the view that
declaring the testimony of faith is sufficient in becoming a Muslim. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab did not agree with this. He asserted that an individual who believed in the existence of intercessors or intermediaries alongside God was guilty of
shirk (polytheism or idolatry). This was the major difference between him and his opponents, and led him to label his adversaries who engaged in folk rituals associated with such beliefs to be
apostates (a practice known in Islamic jurisprudence as
takfir) and idolaters (
mushrikin). Another major doctrine of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was the concept known as ''Al-'Udhr bil Jahl
(excuse of ignorance), wherein any ignorant person unaware of core Islamic teachings is excused by default until clarification. As per this doctrine, those who fell into beliefs of shirk
(polytheism) or kufr'' (disbelief) cannot be excommunicated until they have direct access to scriptural evidences and get the opportunity to understand their mistakes and retract. If not, their affairs are to be delegated only to God. Hence, he believed that education and dialogue was the only effective path for the successful implementation of reforms. Explaining this concept in various pamphlets addressed to the masses and other scholars, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab declared:"What has been mentioned to you about me, that I make generalised
takfīr, this is from the slanders of the enemies.. [Rather] we make
takfīr of the one who affirms the religion of
Allāh and His
Messenger but then showed enmity towards it and hindered people from it; as well as the one who worshipped idols after he came to know that this is the religion of the polytheists and beautified it for the people [inviting them to it].. [In fact] every
scholar on the face of the Earth makes
takfīr of them, save an obstinate or ignorant... But we [only] make
takfīr of the one who associates partners with Allāh in His sole right of worship (ilāhiyyah), after we have made clear to him the proof for the futility of
shirk." Rejecting the allegations of his detractors who accused him of ex-communicating whoever didn't follow his doctrines, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab maintained that he only advocated orthodox Sunni doctrines. In a letter addressed to the
Iraqi scholar Abdul Rahman Al-Suwaidi who had sought clarification over the rumours spread against his mission, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab explains:"I am a man of social standing in my village and the people respect my word. This led some chieftains to reject my call, because I called them to what contradicts the traditions they were raised to uphold.... the chieftains directed their criticism and enmity towards our enjoining
Tawheed and forbidding
Shirk... Among the false accusations they propagated, ... is the claim that I accuse all Muslims, except my followers, of being Kuffar (Unbelievers)... This is truly incredible. How can any sane person accept such accusations? Would a Muslim say these things? I declare that I renounce, before Allah, these statements that only a mad person would utter. In short, what I was accused of calling to, other than enjoining Tawheed and forbidding Shirk, is all false."
On Taqlid Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was highly critical of the practice of
Taqlid (blind-following), which in his view, deviated people away from ''Qur'an
and Sunnah. He also advocated for Ijtihad of qualified scholars in accordance with the teachings of Qur'an
and Hadith''. In his legal writings, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab referred to a number of sources- ''
Qur'an, hadith, opinions of companions, Salaf'' as well as the treatises of the 4 schools of thought. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab argued that Qur'an condemned blind emulation of forefathers and nowhere did it stipulate scholarly credentials for a person to refer to it directly. His advocacy of
Ijtihad and harsh denunciation of
Taqlid arose widespread condemnation from Sufi orthodoxy in
Najd and beyond, compelling him to express many of his legal verdicts (
fatwas) discreetly, using convincing juristic terms. He differed from
Hanbali school in various points of law and in some cases, also departed from the positions of the 4 schools. In his treatise
Usul al-Sittah (Six Foundations), Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab vehemently rebuked his detractors for raising the description of
Mujtahids to what he viewed as humanely unattainable levels. He condemned the establishment clergy as a class of oppressors who ran a "tyranny of wordly possessions" by exploiting the masses to make money out of their religious activities. The teachings of
Medinan
hadith scholar Muhammad Hayat as Sindi highly influenced the anti-taqlid views of Ibn 'Abd al Wahhab. Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab opposed partisanship to
madhabs (legal schools) and didn't consider it obligatory to follow a particular madhab. Rather, in his view, the obligation is to follow ''Qur'an
and the Sunnah''. Referring to the classical scholars
Ibn Taymiyya and
Ibn Qayyim, ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab condemned the popular practice prevalent amongst his contemporary scholars to blindfollow latter-day legal works and urged Muslims to take directly from Qur'an and Sunnah. He viewed it as a duty upon every Muslim, laymen and scholar, male & female, to seek knowledge directly from the sources. Radically departing from both Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab viewed the entirety of the prevalent ''mad'hab
system of jurisprudence (Fiqh) as a fundamentally corrupt institution, seeking a radical reform of scholarly institutions and preached the obligation of all Muslims to directly refer to the foundational texts of revelation. He advocated a form of scholarly authority based upon the revival of the practice of ittiba'', i.e., laymen following the scholars only after seeking evidences. The prevalent legal system was, in his view, a "factory for the production of slavish emulators" symbolic of Muslim decline.
On the nature of Nubuwwah (Prophethood) Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab elucidated his concept on the nature of
Prophethood in his book
Mukhtaṣar sīrat al-Rasūl ("Abridgement of the life of the Prophet"), an extensive biographical work on the Islamic prophet
Muhammad.
Mukhtaṣar was written with the purpose of explaining Muhammad's role in universal history by undermining certain prophetologic conceptions that had come to prominence among
Sunnī religious circles during the twelfth Islamic century. These included negating those concepts and beliefs that bestowed the Prophet with mystical attributes that elevated Muhammad beyond the status of ordinary humans. In his introduction to
Mukhtasar, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab asserts that every Prophet came with the mission of upholding
Tawhid and prohibiting
shirk. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab further tries to undermine the belief in the pre-existence of Muḥammad as a divine light preceding all other creation, a salient concept that served as an aspect of Prophetic devotion during the eleventh Islamic century. Additionally, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb omitted mentioning other episodes narrated in various
sirah (Prophetic biography) works such as trees and stones allegedly expressing veneration for Muḥammad, purification of Muhammad's heart by angels, etc. which suggested that Muḥammad possessed characteristics that transcend those of ordinary humans. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab adhered to
Ibn Taymiyya's understanding of the concept of
Isma (infallibility) which insisted that
ʿiṣma does not prevent prophets from committing minor sins or speaking false things. This differed from the alternative understanding of Sunni theologians like
Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzi,
Qāḍī ʿIyāḍ, etc. who had emphasised the complete independence of the Prophet from any form of error or sin. The designation of his doctrine as
Wahhābiyyah actually derives from his father's name, ʿAbd al-Wahhab. Many adherents consider the label "Wahhabism" as a derogatory term coined by his opponents, and prefer it to be known as the
Salafi movement. Modern scholars of
Islamic studies point out that "Salafism" is a term applied to
several forms of puritanical Islam in various parts of the world, while Wahhabism refers to the specific Saudi school, which is seen as a more strict form of Salafism. However, modern scholars remark that Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's followers adopted the term "Salafi" as a self-designation much later. His early followers denominated themselves as
Ahl al-Tawhid and
al-Muwahhidun ("Unitarians" or "those who affirm/defend the unity of God"), and were labeled "Wahhabis" by their opponents. The
Salafiyya movement was not directly connected to Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's movement in
Najd. According to professor
Abdullah Saeed, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab should rather be considered as one of the "precursors" of the modern
Salafiyya movement since he called for a return to the pristine purity of the early eras of Islam by adhering to the ''
Qur'an and the Sunnah, rejection of the blind following (Taqlid) of earlier scholars and advocating for Ijtihad''. Scholars like Adam J. Silverstein consider Wahhabi movement as "the most influential expression of Salafism of the
Islamist sort, both for its role in shaping (some might say: 'creating') modern Islamism, and for disseminating
salafi ideas widely across the Muslim world."
On Fiqh Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's approach to
Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) was based on four major principles: • Prohibition on speaking about God without ''
'Ilm'' (knowledge) • Ambiguous issues in Scriptures are a mercy to the community and is neither forbidden nor obligatory • Obligation to abide by the clear evidences from Scriptures • Rulings of
halal (allowance) and
haram (prohibition) are clear in the Scriptures and those issues which are unclear should be left as ambiguous According to Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, the clear meaning of authentic
hadiths takes precedence over the opinions of any other scholar, even if it went against the agreement of the eponyms of the four
madhabs. In line with these principles, he encouraged all believers to engage directly with the Scriptures while respecting
Ikhtilaf (scholarly differences), writing:"The
companions of the Messenger of God, may God bless him and grant him peace, differed on various issues without denunciation, so long as the text was not clear. It is upon the believer to place his concern and intent to know the command of God and His Messenger in those matters of disagreement, and to act accordingly whilst respecting the people of knowledge, and respect them, even if they erred, but he does not take them as lords besides God; This is the way of those who are blessed. As for those who throw away their speech and do not respect, then this is the path of those who have incurred God's wrath." Throughout his epistles like
Arbaʿ qawāʿid tadūruʾl-aḥkām ʿalayhā (Four rules on which rulings revolve), Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab fiercely attacked the prevalent Hanbali Fiqh opinions; with a broader view of re-orienting the Fiqh tradition. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab challenged the
madhhab system, by advocating for a direct understanding of the Scriptures. Rather than rejecting
madhabs outright, he sought a reformation of the system by condemning prevalent trends within the
madhabs. He criticised the
madhhab partisans for adhering solely to medieval
Fiqh manuals of later scholars and ignoring ''
Qur'an, Hadith'' and opinions of early Imams. He rebuked the contemporary
Shafi'i scholars for being partisans of
Ibn Hajar al Haytami (d. 1566) and relying solely on his 16th-century manual
Tuhfat al Muhtaj. Similarly, he critiqued the
Malikis for being dependent on the
Mukhtasar of the Egyptian jurist
Khalil ibn Ishaq (d. 1365) rather than acting upon authentic traditions (
hadith). In addition to criticising the Madhab partisans, he berated the advocates of
Taqlid for discouraging the practice of
Ijtihad and called on the laity to follow scholars only after asking for Scriptural evidences. Most noticeably, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab rejected the authority of
Al-Iqna and
Al-Muntaha - two of the most important medieval Hanbali works for the regional clerics of Arabia - asserting:"The Hanbalis are the least prone of all people to innovation. [Yet] most of the
Iqna and the
Muntahā [two late Hanbali authoritative works] conflicts with the view of
Ahmad and his explicit statements, not to mention the
hadith of the Messenger of God" In calling for a direct return to the Scriptures, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was not a
literalist and often strongly objected to literalist approaches and ritualism of religion that came with it. He believed that pure intentions (
Niyyah) constituted the essence of all virtous actions and upheld its superiority over dull ritualism. As a deferential and accomplished jurist with the experience of religious training under numerous masters in his travels, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab opposed the rigid, hardline views of the tradition-bound
ulema who had excommunicated sinful, unrepenting
Muslims; thereby making their blood forfeit based on their reading of the reports of Muhammad and Companions. On the other hand, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab contextualised those reports; arguing that they must be understood in recognition of historical circumstances. According to his view, sincerity and purity of intent (
Ikhlas) could expiate the evil of sins committed in mistakes. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's legal approach began with
hadith authentication, followed by contextualised intrapolation in consideration of
Hanbali legal principles such as
Maslaha (common good). Other legal criteria involved upholding the spirit of the law,
Maqasid al-Sharia, and intent behind pronouncing legal verdicts which addressed various themes such as societal justice and safeguarding women. He also believed in a holistic legal understanding of ''Qur'anic
verses and hadith'', distinguishing between general rules applicable for all Muslims and rulings unique to various life-time situations.
On Islamic revival As a young scholar in
Medina, Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was profoundly influenced by the revivalist doctrines taught by his teachers
Muhammad Hayyat ibn Ibrahim al-Sindhi and Abdullah Ibn Ibrahim Ibn Sayf. Much of the Wahhabi teachings such as opposition to saint-cults, radical denunciation of blind-following medieval commentaries, adherence to Scriptures and other revivalist thoughts came from Muhammad Hayyat. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's revivalist efforts were based on a strong belief in
Tawhid (Oneness of Allah) and a firm adherence to the
Sunnah. His reformative efforts left exemplary marks on contemporary Islamic scholarship. Viewing Blind adherence (
Taqlid ) as an obstacle to the progress of Muslims, he dedicated himself to educating the masses for them to be vanguards of Islam. According to Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the degradation and lagging behind of
Muslims was due to their neglect of the teachings of
Islam, emphasizing that progress could be achieved only by firmly adhering to Islam. He also campaigned against popular Sufi practices associated with
istigatha, myths and superstitions.
On Sufism Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab praised
Tasawwuf. He stated the popular saying: "From among the wonders is to find a Sufi who is a
faqih and a scholar who is an
ascetic (
zahid)". He described Tasawwuf as "the science of the deeds of the heart, which is known as the science of
Suluk", and considered it as an important branch of Islamic religious sciences. At the end of his treatise,
Al-Hadiyyah al-Suniyyah, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's son
'Abd Allah speaks positively on the practice of
tazkiah (purification of the inner self). 'Abd Allah Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab ends his treatise saying: We do not negate the way of the Sufis and the purification of the inner self from the vices of those sins connected to the heart and the limbs as long as the individual firmly adheres to the rules of Shari'ah and the correct and observed way. However, we will not take it on ourselves to allegorically interpret (''ta'wil
) his speech and his actions. We only place our reliance on, seek help from, beseech aid from and place our confidence in all our dealings in Allah Most High. He is enough for us, the best trustee, the best mawla'' and the best helper. May Allah send peace on our master Muhammad, his family and companions.
On social reforms Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab concerned himself with the social reformation of his people. As an 18th-century reformer, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al Wahhab called for the re-opening of
Ijtihad by qualified persons through strict adherence to Scriptures in reforming society. His thoughts reflected the major trends apparent in the 18th-century Islamic reform movements. Unlike other reform movements which were restricted to ''da'wa'', Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was also able to transform his movement into a successful
Islamic state. Thus, his teachings had a profound influence on majority of Islamic
reform-
revivalist movements since the 18th century. Numerous significant socio-economic reforms would be advocated by the
Imam during his lifetime. His reforms touched over various fields such as
aqeeda,
ibaadat (ritual acts of worship),
muamalaat (social interactions), etc. In the affairs of ''mu'amalat
, he harshly rebuked the practice of leaving endowments to prevent the rightful heirs (particularly the females) from receiving their deserved inheritance. He also objected to various forms of riba'' (usury) as well as the practice of presenting judges with gifts, which according to him, was nothing more than bribing. He also opposed and brought an end to numerous un-Islamic taxes that were forced upon the people.
On women The legal writings of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab reflected a general concern of female welfare and justice. In line with this approach, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab denounced the practice of instant
triple talaq, counting it as only a single
talaq (regardless of the number of pronouncements). The outlawing of
triple talaq is considered to be one of the most significant reforms across the
Islamic World in the 20th and 21st centuries. Following a balanced approach in issues of gender, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab advocated moderation between men and women in social interactions as well as spirituality. According to Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, women has a place in society with both rights and responsibility, with the society being obliged to respect her status and protect her. He also condemned forced marriages and declared any marriage contracted without the consent of a woman (be it minor, virgin or non-virgin) to be "invalid". This too was a significant reform as well as a break from the four Sunni schools which allowed the
wali (ward/guardian) to compel minor daughters into marriage without consent. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab also stipulated the permission of the guardian as a condition in marriage (in line with traditional Hanbali,
Shafi'i and
Maliki schools). Nevertheless, as a practical jurist, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab allowed guardians to delegate the right to contract marriages to women herself, after which his permission cannot be denied. He also allowed women the right to stipulate favourable conditions for her in the marriage contract. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab also defended the woman's right to divorce through ''
Khul' for various reasons, including in cases wherein she despised her husband. He also prohibited the killing of women, children and various non-combatants such as monks, elderly, blind, shaykhs'', slaves and peasants in warfare. In addition to these, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab also defended married women's right to maintenance from her husband; as well as bride's right to receive
mahr from her groom. He also strongly campaigned against domestic abuses against women, enjoining men to treat their wives with kindness. Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab believed in social participation of women for communal solidarity; as per Islamic codes of modesty (
Haya) that was inclusive to all sections of society, especially the poor. He also campaigned for improving female literacy and asserted women's education as part of their religious rights and duties. Educated elite women played an important role in the Wahhabi movement through social activism and in various instances also weld significant political influence. Many women were trained in various religious disciplines, memorising ''
Qur'an and being proficient in hadith sciences; which gained them civic respect as well as a source of income by teaching. As a result, the townsfolk of 19th-century Central Arabia had noticeably higher rates of literacy as observed by foreign travellers. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab also encouraged educated women to be active in various communal activities so as to bolster the reformist campaigns of the Muwahhidun'', educating other women, generating awareness of
superstitions as well as other cultural activities such as reciting
poetry, playing
tambourine during feasts, weddings and various social gatherings. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's own daughter, Fatima was an influential
Islamic scholar active in social and communal affairs and would influence subsequent generations of Arabian women.
On Jihad Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb defined
jihad as an activity that must have a valid religious justification and which can only be declared by an
Imam whose purpose must be strictly defensive in nature. He viewed the military campaigns of the
Emirate of Dirʿiyya as strictly defensive operations against aggressive opponents who initiated
Takfir against his followers. Justifying the Wahhabi military campaigns as primarily defensive operations, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab asserts:"As for warfare, until today, we did not fight anyone, except in defense of our lives and honor. They came to us in our area and did not spare any effort in fighting us. We only initiated fighting against some of them in retaliation for their continued aggression, [
The recompense for an evil is an evil like thereof] (42:40)... they are the ones who started declaring us to be unbelievers and fighting us"
On Muslim saints Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab strongly condemned the veneration of
Muslim saints (which he described as worship) or associating divinity to beings other than God, labeling it as
shirk.
On non-Muslims According to the
political scientist Dore Gold, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab presented a strong
anti-Christian and
anti-Judaic stance in his main theological treatise
Kitāb at-Tawḥīd, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab asserted that both the Christian and Jewish religions had improperly made the graves of their prophet into places of worship and warned Muslims not to imitate this practice. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab concluded that "The ways of the
People of the Book are condemned as those of polytheists." ==Reception==