Ancient history Cimmeria The
Cimmerians were an ancient Indo-European people living north of the
Caucasus and the
Sea of Azov as early as 1300 BCE until they were driven southward by the Scythians into
Anatolia during the 8th century BCE. Linguistically they are usually regarded as Iranian, or possibly Thracian with an Iranian ruling class. • The
Pontic–Caspian steppe:
southern Russia and
Ukraine until 7th century BCE. • The northern
Caucasus area, including modern territories of
Georgia and
Azerbaijan • Central, East and North
Anatolia 714–626 BCE.
Scythia Scythia (; ) was a region of
Central Eurasia in
classical antiquity, occupied by the
Eastern Iranian Scythians, encompassing parts of
Eastern Europe east of the
Vistula River and
Central Asia, with the eastern edges of the region vaguely defined by the Greeks. The Ancient Greeks gave the name Scythia (or Great Scythia) to all the lands north-east of Europe and the northern coast of the
Black Sea. The Scythians—the Greeks' name for this initially nomadic people—inhabited Scythia from at least the 11th century BCE to the 2nd century CE.
Sarmatia The
Sarmatians ( or ; ) were a large
confederation of
Iranian people during
classical antiquity, flourishing from about the 6th century BCE to the 4th century CE. They spoke
Scythian, an
Indo-European language from the
Eastern Iranian family. According to authors Arrowsmith, Fellowes and Graves Hansard in their book
A Grammar of Ancient Geography published in 1832, Sarmatia had two parts, Sarmatia Europea and Sarmatia Asiatica and then the northern parts of the
Indian subcontinent at least as far as
Saketa and
Sarnath near
Varanasi (Benares), where inscriptions have been found dating to the era of the Kushan emperor
Kanishka the Great.
Xianbei The Xianbei state or Xianbei confederation was a nomadic empire which existed in modern-day
Inner Mongolia, northern
Xinjiang,
Northeast China,
Gansu,
Mongolia,
Buryatia,
Zabaykalsky Krai,
Irkutsk Oblast,
Tuva,
Altai Republic and eastern
Kazakhstan from 156 to 234 CE. Like most ancient peoples known through
Chinese historiography, the ethnic makeup of the
Xianbei is unclear. The Xianbei were a northern branch of the earlier
Donghu and it is likely at least some were
proto-Mongols. After it collapsed, the tribe immigrated into the
Central Plain and founded the
Northern Wei dynasty.
Hephthalite Empire The
Hephthalites,
Ephthalites,
Ye-tai,
White Huns, or, in
Sanskrit, the
Sveta Huna, were a confederation of
nomadic and settled people in
Central Asia who expanded their domain westward in the 5th century. At the height of its power in the first half of the 6th century, the Hephthalite Empire controlled territory in present-day
Afghanistan,
Turkmenistan,
Uzbekistan,
Tajikistan,
Kyrgyzstan,
Kazakhstan,
Pakistan,
India and
China.
Hunnic Empire The
Huns were a confederation of
Eurasian tribes from the Steppes of
Central Asia. Appearing from beyond the
Volga River some years after the middle of the 4th century, they conquered all of eastern Europe, ending up at the border of the
Roman Empire in the south, and advancing far into modern day
Germany in the north. Their appearance in Europe brought with it great ethnic and political upheaval and may have stimulated the
Great Migration. The empire reached its largest size under
Attila between 447 and 453.
Post-classical history Mongolic people and Turkic expansion Bulgars Krum pursue the Byzantines at the
Battle of Versinikia (813). after the fall of Old Great Bulgaria in the 7th century The Bulgars (also Bulghars, Bulgari, Bolgars, Bolghars, Bolgari, Proto-Bulgarians) were
Turkic semi-nomadic warrior tribes that flourished in the
Pontic–Caspian steppe and the
Volga region during the 7th century. Emerging as
nomadic equestrians in the
Volga-Ural region, according to some researchers their roots can be traced to
Central Asia. During their westward migration across the
Eurasian steppe the Bulgars absorbed other ethnic groups and cultural influences, including
Hunnic and Indo-European peoples. Modern genetic research on Central Asian Turkic people and ethnic groups related to the Bulgars points to an affiliation with Western Eurasian populations. The Bulgars spoke a
Turkic language, i.e.
Bulgar language of
Oghuric branch. They preserved the military titles, organization and customs of Eurasian steppes, as well as pagan shamanism and belief in the sky deity
Tangra. After
Dengizich's death, the
Huns seem to have been absorbed by other ethnic groups such as the
Bulgars. Kim, however, argues that the Huns continued under Ernak, becoming the
Kutrigur and
Utigur Hunno-
Bulgars. This conclusion is still subject to some controversy. Some scholars also argue that another group identified in ancient sources as Huns, the
North Caucasian Huns, were genuine Huns. The rulers of various post-Hunnic steppe peoples are known to have claimed descent from Attila in order to legitimize their right to the power, and various steppe peoples were also called "Huns" by Western and Byzantine sources from the fourth century onward. The first clear mention and evidence of the Bulgars was in 480, when they served as the allies of the Byzantine Emperor
Zeno (474–491) against the
Ostrogoths. Anachronistic references about them can also be found in the 7th-century geography work
Ashkharatsuyts by
Anania Shirakatsi, where the ''Kup'i Bulgar
, Duč'i Bulkar
, Olxontor Błkar
and immigrant Č'dar Bulkar
tribes are mentioned as being in the North Caucasian-Kuban steppes. An obscure reference to Ziezi ex quo Vulgares
, with Ziezi being an offspring of Biblical Shem, is in the Chronography of 354''. The Bulgars became
semi-sedentary during the 7th century in the
Pontic-Caspian steppe, establishing the polity of
Old Great Bulgaria c. 635, which was absorbed by the
Khazar Empire in 668 CE. In c. 679, Khan
Asparukh conquered
Scythia Minor, opening access to
Moesia, and established the
First Bulgarian Empire, where the Bulgars became a political and military elite. They merged subsequently with established
Byzantine populations, as well as with previously settled
Slavic tribes, and were eventually
Slavicized, thus forming the ancestors of modern
Bulgarians.
Rouran The Rouran (), Ruanruan (), or Ruru () were a confederation of
Mongolic-speaking nomadic tribes in northern
China from the late 4th century until the late 6th century. They controlled an area corresponding to modern-day northern China,
Mongolia, and southern
Siberia.
Göktürks ates at their height, c. 600 CE: The Göktürks or Kök-Türks were a
Turkic people of inhabiting much of northern
China and
Inner Asia. Under the leadership of
Bumin Khan and his sons they established the
First Turkic Khaganate around 546, taking the place of the earlier
Xiongnu as the main power in the region. They were the first Turkic tribe to use the name
Türk as a political name. The empire was split into a
western and an
eastern part around 600, and both divisions were eventually conquered by the
Tang dynasty. In 680, the Göktürks established the
Second Turkic Khaganate which later declined after 734 following the establishment of the
Uyghur Khaganate.
Kyrgyz The
Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate was a Turkic-led empire occupying the territories of modern-day northern
China,
Mongolia, and southern
Siberia around the
Yenisei River. The khaganate was founded in 693 by
Bars Bek, and in 695, after a confrontation with the
Second Turkic Khaganate, was recognised by
Qapagan. In 710–711, as a result of the war with the Göktürks, the Kyrgyz Khaganate fell, and the descendants of Bars Bek remained vassals of the Second Turkic Khaganate until its fall in 744. After that, the Kyrgyz tribes became part of the ascendant
Uyghur Khaganate. In 820, war broke out between the Kyrgyz and the Uyghur Khaganate, which continued with varying success for 20 years. In 840, the Uyghur Khaganate fell, and the Kyrgyz Khaganate was restored on its territory. It reached its peak of power at the end of the 9th century, but had little geopolitical influence thereafter. Eventually, the Kyrgyz Khaganate was finally dissolved in 1207 after becoming part of the
Mongol Empire.
Uyghurs The Uyghur Khaganate was an empire that existed in present-day northern
China,
Mongolia, southern
Siberia, and surrounding areas for about a century between the mid 8th and 9th centuries. It was a tribal confederation under the
Orkhon Uyghur nobility. It was established by
Kutlug I Bilge Khagan in 744, taking advantage of the power vacuum in the region after the fall of the Gökturk Empire. It collapsed after a
Kyrgyz invasion in 840.
Khitans The Liao dynasty was ruled by the
Yelü clan of the Khitan people in northern China. It was founded by
Yelü Abaoji (Emperor Taizu of Liao) around the time of the collapse of the
Tang dynasty and was the first state to control all of
Manchuria. After the Liao dynasty fell to the
Jin dynasty in the 12th century, remnants of the Liao imperial clan led by
Yelü Dashi (Emperor Dezong of Western Liao) fled west and established the
Western Liao dynasty.
Seljuk Empire The founder of the Seljuk dynasty was an
Oghuz Turkic chieftain Seljuk that had served under Khazar army. Ancestors of Seljuk remained unclarified except for his father, Dukak. Dukak was a competent man in Oghuz Yabgu State, and like him Seljuk also gained a seat the court of the Oghuz Yabgu. Afterwards Seljuk fell into disfavor in the court, and he decided to move into Jend with his clan in 961. Rumor has it that he converted to İslam in order to gain the power from İslamic countries. The Oghuz Turks sought a proper homeland that includes vast pastures for their herdes, and consistently fought against
Kara-Khanid Khanate,
Ghaznavids and
Eastern Roman Empire. They followed changeable policies among contiguous states due to tending to keep the balance of power. The grandsons of Seljuk,
Tughril and
Chagri Begs decisively defeated Ghaznavids in
the Battle of Dandanaqan, gained the power in the Khorasan. Tughril Beg sent Chagri Beg into
Eastern Anatolia to seek proper pastures, so the conflicts between Oghuz Turks and Byzantine Empire began. During Tughril's reign, the life styles of nomadic Oghuz tribes changed as they conquered lands of Persia.
Mongol Empire The Mongol Empire was the largest contiguous land empire in history at its peak, with an estimated population of over 100 million people. The Mongol Empire was founded by
Genghis Khan in 1206, and at its height, it encompassed the majority of the territories from
East Asia to
Eastern Europe. After unifying the
Turco-Mongol tribes, the Empire expanded through conquests throughout continental
Eurasia. During its existence, the
Pax Mongolica facilitated cultural exchange and trade on the
Silk Route between the
East,
West, and the
Middle East in the period of the 13th and 14th centuries. It had significantly eased
communication and
commerce across
Asia during its height. After the death of
Möngke Khan in 1259, the empire split into four parts (
Yuan dynasty,
Ilkhanate,
Chagatai Khanate and
Golden Horde), each of which was ruled by its own monarch, although the emperors of the Yuan dynasty had nominal title of Khagan. After the disintegration of the western khanates and the
fall of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, the empire finally broke up.
Timurid Empire The
Timurids, self-designated Gurkānī, were a
Turko-Mongol dynasty, established by the warlord
Timur in 1370 and lasting until 1506. At its zenith, the Timurid Empire included the whole of
Central Asia,
Iran and modern
Afghanistan, as well as large parts of
Mesopotamia and the
Caucasus.
Modern history by the 15th century
Later Mongol-ruled khanates between Manchu
Qing dynasty and
Dzungar Khanate Later Mongol-led khanates such as the
Northern Yuan dynasty and the
Dzungar Khanate were also nomadic empires. After the fall of the
Yuan dynasty in 1368, the
Ming dynasty rebuilt the
Great Wall, which had been begun many hundreds of years earlier to keep the northern nomads out of the
Central Plain. During the subsequent centuries, the Northern Yuan dynasty tended to continue their
nomadic way of life. On the other hand, the
Dzungars were a confederation of several
Oirat tribes who formed and maintained the last horse archer empire from the early 17th century to the middle 18th century. They emerged in the early 17th century to fight the
Altan Khan of the Khalkha, the
Jasaghtu Khan and their
Manchu patrons for dominion and control over the Mongol tribes. In 1756, this last nomadic power was dissolved due to the Oirat princes' succession struggle and costly war with the
Qing dynasty. ==Popular misconceptions==