Ultimate reality Different religions have different ideas about
ultimate reality, its source or ground (or lack thereof) and also about what is the "Maximal Greatness".
Paul Tillich's concept of 'Ultimate Concern' and
Rudolf Otto's '
Idea of the Holy' are concepts which point to concerns about the ultimate or highest truth which most religious philosophies deal with in some way. One of the main differences among religions is whether the ultimate reality is a
personal god or an impersonal reality. In
Western religions, various forms of
theism are the most common conceptions, while in
Eastern religions, there are theistic and also various
non-theistic conceptions of the Ultimate. Theistic vs non-theistic is a common way of sorting the different types of religions. There are also several philosophical positions with regard to the
existence of God that one might take including various forms of theism (such as
monotheism and
polytheism),
agnosticism and different forms of
atheism.
Monotheism considered five arguments for the existence of God, widely known as the
quinque viae (Five Ways).
Keith Yandell outlines roughly three kinds of historical monotheisms:
Greek,
Semitic and
Hindu. Greek monotheism holds that the world has always existed and does not believe in
creationism or
divine providence, while Semitic monotheism believes the world was created by a God at a particular point in time and that this God acts in the world. Indian monotheism teaches that the world is beginningless, but that there is God's act of creation which sustains the world. The attempt to provide proofs or arguments for the
existence of God is one aspect of what is known as
natural theology or the natural theistic project. This strand of natural theology attempts to justify belief in God by independent grounds. Perhaps most of the philosophy of religion is predicated on natural theology's assumption that the existence of God can be justified or warranted on rational grounds. There has been considerable philosophical and theological debate about the kinds of proofs, justifications and arguments that are appropriate for this discourse.
Non-theistic conceptions argued against Hindu creator god views and for an impersonal conception of absolute reality that has been described as a form of Idealism. Eastern religions have included both theistic and other alternative positions about the ultimate nature of reality. One such view is
Jainism, which holds a
dualistic view that all that exists is matter and a multiplicity of souls (
jiva), without depending on a supreme deity for their existence. There are also different Buddhist views, such as the
Theravada Abhidharma view, which holds that the only ultimately existing things are transitory phenomenal events (
dharmas) and their
interdependent relations.
Madhyamaka Buddhists such as
Nagarjuna hold that ultimate reality is emptiness (
shunyata) while the
Yogacara holds that it is
vijñapti (mental phenomena). In Indian philosophical discourses, monotheism was defended by Hindu philosophers (particularly the
Nyaya school), while Buddhist thinkers argued against their conception of a
creator god (Sanskrit:
Ishvara). The Hindu view of
Advaita Vedanta, as defended by
Adi Shankara, is a total
non-dualism. Although Advaitins do believe in the usual Hindu gods, their view of ultimate reality is a radically
monistic oneness (
Brahman without qualities) and anything which appears (like persons and gods) is illusory (
maya). The various philosophical positions of
Taoism can also be viewed as non-theistic about the ultimate reality (
Tao).
Taoist philosophers have conceived of different ways of describing the ultimate nature of things. For example, while the Taoist
Xuanxue thinker
Wang Bi argued that everything is "rooted" in
Wu (non-being, nothingness),
Guo Xiang rejected
Wu as the ultimate source of things, instead arguing that the ultimate nature of the Tao is "spontaneous self-production" (
zi sheng) and "spontaneous self-transformation" (
zi hua). Traditionally, Jains and Buddhists did not rule out the existence of limited deities or divine beings, they only rejected the idea of a single all-powerful creator God or First cause posited by monotheists.
Knowledge and belief is a parable widely used in Buddhism and Jainism to illustrate the dangers of dogmatic religious belief. All religious traditions make knowledge claims which they argue are central to religious practice and to the ultimate solution to the main problem of human life. These include
epistemic, metaphysical and
ethical claims.
Evidentialism is the position that may be characterized as "a belief is rationally justified only if there is sufficient evidence for it". Many theists and non-theists are evidentialists, for example,
Aquinas and
Bertrand Russell agree that belief in God is rational only if there is sufficient evidence, but disagree on whether such evidence exists. His view of evidentialism is usually read in tandem with William James's article
A Will to Believe (1896), which argues against Clifford's principle. More recent supporters of evidentialism include
Antony Flew ("The Presumption of Atheism", 1972) and
Michael Scriven (Primary philosophy, 1966). Both of them rely on the
Ockhamist view that in the absence of evidence for X, belief in X is not justified. Many modern
Thomists are also evidentialists in that they hold they can demonstrate there is evidence for the belief in God. Another move is to argue in a
Bayesian way for the probability of a religious truth like God, not for total conclusive evidence. The rationale here is that some beliefs we hold must be foundational and not be based on further rational beliefs. If this is not so, then we risk an
infinite regress. This is qualified by the proviso that they can be defended against objections (this differentiates this view from fideism). A properly basic belief is a belief that one can reasonably hold without evidence, such as a memory, a basic sensation or a perception. Plantinga's argument is that belief in God is of this type because within every human mind there is a natural awareness of divinity.
William James in his essay "
The Will to Believe" argues for a pragmatic conception of religious belief. For James, religious belief is justified if one is presented with a question which is rationally undecidable and if one is presented with genuine and live options which are relevant for the individual. For James, religious belief is defensible because of the pragmatic value it can bring to one's life, even if there is no rational evidence for it. Some work in recent epistemology of religion goes beyond debates over evidentialism, fideism, and reformed epistemology to consider contemporary issues deriving from new ideas about knowledge-how and practical skill; how practical factors can affect whether one could know whether theism is true; from formal epistemology's use of probability theory; or from social epistemology (particularly the epistemology of testimony, or the epistemology of disagreement). For example, an important topic in the epistemology of religion is that of religious disagreement, and the issue of what it means for intelligent individuals of the same epistemic parity to disagree about religious issues. Religious disagreement has been seen as possibly posing first-order or higher-order problems for religious belief. A first order problem refers to whether that evidence directly applies to the truth of any religious proposition, while a higher order problem instead applies to
whether one has rationally assessed the first order evidence. One example of a first order problem is the
Argument from nonbelief. Higher order discussions focus on whether religious disagreement with epistemic peers (someone whose epistemic ability is equal to our own) demands us to adopt a skeptical or agnostic stance or whether to reduce or change our religious beliefs.
Faith and reason :
The Miracle of Theism (1982). While religions resort to rational arguments to attempt to establish their views, they also claim that religious belief is at least partially to be accepted through
faith, confidence or trust in one's religious belief. There are different conceptions or models of faith, including: • The
affective model of faith sees it as a feeling of trust, a psychological state • The special knowledge model of faith as revealing specific religious truths (defended by
Reformed epistemology) • The belief model of faith as the theoretical conviction that a certain religious claim is true. • Faith as trusting, as making a
fiducial commitment such as trusting in God. • The practical
doxastic venture model where faith is seen as a commitment to believe in the trustworthiness of a religious truth or in God. In other words, to trust in God presupposes belief, thus faith must include elements of belief and trust. • The non-doxastic venture model of faith as practical commitment
without actual belief (defended by figures such as
Robert Audi,
J. L. Schellenberg and
Don Cupitt). In this view, one need not believe in literal religious claims about reality to have religious faith. • The hope model, faith as hoping There are also different positions on how faith relates to reason. One example is the belief that faith and reason are compatible and work together, which is the view of
Thomas Aquinas and the orthodox view of Catholic
natural theology. According to this view, reason establishes certain religious truths and faith (guided by reason) gives us access to truths about the divine which, according to Aquinas, "exceed all the ability of human reason." Another position on is
Fideism, the view that faith is "in some sense independent of, if not outright adversarial toward, reason." Modern philosophers such as
Kierkegaard,
William James, and
Wittgenstein have been associated with this label.
Kierkegaard in particular, argued for the necessity of the religious to take a non-rational
leap of faith to bridge the gulf between man and God. Wittgensteinian fideism meanwhile sees religious
language games as being incommensurate with scientific and metaphysical language games, and that they are autonomous and thus may only be judged on their own standards. The obvious criticism to this is that many religions clearly put forth metaphysical claims. The Protestant theologian
Karl Barth (1886–1968) argued that religious believers have no need to prove their beliefs through reason and thus rejected the project of
natural theology. According to Barth, human reason is corrupt and God is utterly different from his creatures, thus we can only rely on God's own revelation for religious knowledge. Barth's view has been termed
Neo-orthodoxy. Similarly,
D.Z. Phillips argues that God is not intelligible through reason or evidence because God is not an empirical object or a 'being among beings'. As Brian Davies points out, the problem with positions like Barth's is that they do not help us in deciding between
inconsistent and competing revelations of the different religions.
Science The topic of whether religious beliefs are compatible with
science and in what way is also another important topic in the philosophy of religion as well as in
theology. This field draws the historical study of their interactions and conflicts, such as the debates in the United States over the teaching of
evolution and
creationism. There are different models of interaction that have been discussed in the philosophical literature, including: Some argued that evolutionary or cognitive theories undermine religious belief.
Religious experience wrote
The Varieties of Religious Experience, 1902 Closely related to knowledge and belief is how to interpret
religious experiences and their potential for providing knowledge. Religious experiences have been recorded throughout all cultures and are widely diverse. These personal experiences tend to be highly important to individuals who undergo them. Discussions about religious experiences can be said to be informed in part by the question: "what sort of information about what there is might religious experience provide, and how could one tell?" Other philosophers such as
Eleonore Stump and Matthew Benton argue for an interpersonal epistemology on which one can experience and know God in a relational or personal sense. According to
Brian Davies common objections against the veridical force of religious experiences include the fact that experience is frequently deceptive and that people who claim an experience of a god may be "mistakenly identifying an object of their experience", or be insane or hallucinating. However, he argues that we cannot deduce from the fact that our experiences are
sometimes mistaken, hallucinations or distorted to the conclusion that all religious experiences are mistaken etc. Indeed, a drunken or hallucinating person could still perceive things correctly, therefore these objections cannot be said to
necessarily disprove all religious experiences. Naturalistic explanations for religious experiences are often seen as undermining their epistemic value. Explanations such as the
fear of death,
suggestion,
infantile regression,
sexual frustration, neurological anomalies ("it's all in the head") as well as the socio-political power that having such experiences might grant to a mystic have been put forward. More recently, some argued that religious experiences are caused by cognitive misattributions akin to hallucinations, although this was denied by others. A contrary position was taken by
Bertrand Russell who compared the veridical value of religious experiences to the
hallucinations of a drunk person: "From a scientific point of view, we can make no distinction between the man who eats little and sees heaven and the man who drinks much and sees snakes. Each is in an abnormal physical condition, and therefore has abnormal perceptions." However, as
William L. Rowe notes: The hidden assumption in Russell's argument is that bodily and mental states that interfere with reliable perceptions of the physical world also interfere with reliable perceptions of a spiritual world beyond the physical, if there is such a spiritual world to be perceived. Perhaps this assumption is reasonable, but it certainly is not obviously true. In other words, as argued by
C.D. Broad, "one might need to be slightly 'cracked or at least appear to be mentally and physically abnormal in order to perceive the supranormal spiritual world. The study of religious experiences from the perspective of the field of
phenomenology has also been a feature of the philosophy of religion. Key thinkers in this field include
William Brede Kristensen and
Gerard van der Leeuw.
Types scene in the
Bhagavadgita wherein
Krishna reveals his universal form to
Arjuna Just like there are different religions, there are different forms of religious experience. One could have "subject/content" experiences (such as a euphoric meditative state) and "subject/consciousness/object" experiences (such as the perception of having seen a god, i.e.
theophany). Experiences of
theophany are described in ancient Mediterranean religious works and myths and include the story of
Semele who died due to her seeing
Zeus and the Biblical story of the
Burning bush. Indian texts like the
Bhagavad Gita also contain theophanic events. The diversity (sometimes to the point of contradiction) of religious experiences has also been used as an argument against their veridical nature, and as evidence that they are a purely subjective psychological phenomenon. In Western thought, religious experience (mainly a theistic one) has been described by the likes of
Friedrich Schleiermacher,
Rudolf Otto and
William James. According to Schleiermacher, the distinguishing feature of a religious experience is that "one is overcome by the feeling of absolute dependence." Otto meanwhile, argued that while this was an important element, the most basic feature of religious experiences is that it is
numinous. He described this as "non-rational, non-sensory experience or feeling whose primary and immediate object is outside the self" as well as having the qualities of being a mystery, terrifying and fascinating. Rowe meanwhile defined a religious experience as "an experience in which one senses the immediate presence of the divine." According to Rowe, religious experiences can be divided in the following manner: • Religious experiences in which one senses the presence of the divine as being distinct from oneself. • Mystical experiences in which one senses one's own union with a divine presence. • The extrovertive way looks outward through the senses into the world around us and finds the divine reality there. • The introvertive way turns inward and finds the divine reality in the deepest part of the self. Non-monotheistic religions meanwhile also report different experiences from theophany, such as
non-dual experiences of oneness and deeply focused meditative states (termed
samadhi in Indian religion) as well as experiences of
enlightenment in Buddhism,
liberation in Hinduism, and
kevala in
Jainism. Another typology, offered by Chad Meister, differentiates between three major experiences: • Regenerative experiences, in which an individual feels reborn, transformed or changed radically, usually resulting in religious conversion. • Charismatic experiences, in which special gifts, abilities, or blessings are manifested (such as healing, visions, etc.) •
Mystical experiences, which can be described using William James qualifications as being:
ineffable,
noetic, transient and passive.
Perennialism vs Constructivism Another debate on this topic is whether all religious cultures share common core mystical experiences (
Perennialism) or whether these experiences are in some way socially and culturally constructed (
Constructivism or
Contextualism). According to
Walter Stace all cultures share mystical experiences of oneness with the external world, as well as introverted "Pure Conscious Events" which is empty of all concepts, thoughts, qualities, etc. except pure consciousness. For example, for Christianity,
sin is the source of human problems, while for Buddhism, it is
craving and
ignorance. A general question which philosophy of religion asks is what is the relationship, if any, between morality and religion. Brian Davies outlines four possible theses: • Morality somehow requires religion. One example of this view is
Kant's idea that morality should lead us to believe in a moral law, and thus to believe in an upholder of that law, that is, God. • Morality is somehow included in religion, "The basic idea here is that being moral is part of what being religious means." • Morality is pointless without religion, for one would have no reason to be moral without it. • Morality and religion are opposed to each other. In this view, belief in a God would mean one would do whatever that God commands, even if it goes against morality. The view that religion and morality are often opposed has been espoused by atheists like
Lucretius and
Bertrand Russell as well as by theologians like
Kierkegaard who argued for a '
teleological suspension of the ethical'. Monotheistic religions who seek to explain morality and its relationship to God must deal with what is termed the
Euthyphro dilemma, famously stated in the
Platonic dialogue "
Euthyphro" as: "Is the
pious (τὸ ὅσιον, i.e. what is morally good) loved by the
gods because it is pious, or is it pious because it is loved by the gods?" Those who hold that what is moral is so
because it is what God commands are defending a version of the
Divine command theory. Another important topic which is widely discussed in
Abrahamic monotheistic religious philosophy is the problem of human
Free will and God's
omniscience. God's omniscience could presumably include perfect knowledge of the future, leading to
Theological determinism and thus possibly contradicting with human free will. There are different positions on this including
libertarianism (free will is true) and
Predestination.
Miracles Belief in
miracles and
supernatural events or occurrences is common among world religions. A miracle is an event which cannot be explained by rational or scientific means. The
Resurrection of Jesus and the
Miracles of Muhammad are examples of miracles claimed by religions. Some philosophers evaluate miracle claims such as the resurrection of Jesus by using
Bayes' theorem to compare the probability of the reported events under the miracle hypothesis versus under purely naturalistic hypotheses.
Skepticism towards the supernatural can be found in early philosophical traditions like the Indian
Carvaka school and Greco-Roman philosophers like
Lucretius.
David Hume, who defined a miracle as "a violation of the laws of nature", famously argued against miracles in
Of Miracles, Section X of
An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding (1748). For Hume, the probability that a miracle has not occurred is always greater than the probability that it has because "as a firm and unalterable experience has established these laws [of nature], the proof against a miracle, from the very nature of the fact, is as entire as any argument from experience can possibly be imagined" (
Enquiry. X. p. 173). Hume does not argue that a miracle is impossible, only that it is unreasonable to believe in any testimony of a miracle's occurrence, for evidence for the regularity of natural laws is much stronger than human testimony (which is often in error). According to Rowe, there are two weaknesses with Hume's argument. First, there could be other forms of indirect evidence for the occurrence of a miracle that does not include testimony of someone's direct experience of it. Secondly, Rowe argues that Hume overestimates "the weight that should be given to past experience in support of some principle thought to be a law of nature." For it is a common occurrence that currently accepted ideas of natural laws are revised due to an observed exception but Hume's argument would lead one to conclude that these exceptions do not occur. Rowe adds that "It remains true, however, that a reasonable person will require quite strong evidence before believing that a law of nature has been violated. It is easy to believe the person who claimed to see water run downhill, but quite difficult to believe that someone saw water run uphill." Another definition of a miracle is possible however, which is termed the
Epistemic theory of miracles and was argued for by
Spinoza and
St. Augustine. This view rejects that a miracle is a transgression of natural laws, but is simply a transgression of our current
understanding of natural law. In the
Tractatus Theologico-Politicus,
Spinoza writes: "miracles are only intelligible as in relation to human opinions, and merely mean events of which the natural cause cannot be explained by a reference to any ordinary occurrence, either by us, or at any rate, by the writer and narrator of the miracle" (
Tractatus p. 84). Similarly,
R.F. Holland has defined miracle in a naturalistic way in a widely cited paper. For Holland, a miracle need only be an extraordinary and beneficial coincidence interpreted religiously. Brian Davies notes that even if we can establish that a miracle has occurred, it is hard to see what this is supposed to prove. For it is possible that they arise due to agencies which are unusual and powerful, but not divine.
Afterlife World religions put forth various theories which affirm
life after death and different kinds of postmortem existence. This is often tied to belief in an immortal individual
soul or self (
Sanskrit:
atman) separate from the body which survives death, as defended by
Plato,
Descartes, Monotheistic religions like Christianity and many
Indian philosophers. This view is also a position on the
mind body problem, mainly,
dualism. This view then must show not only that dualism is true and that souls exist, but also that souls survive death. As
Kant famously argued, the mere existence of a soul does not prove its immortality, for one could conceive that a soul, even if it is totally simple, could still fade away or lose its intensity.
H. H. Price is one modern philosopher who has speculated at length about what it would be like to be a disembodied soul after death. One major issue with soul beliefs is that since
personhood is closely tied to one's physical body, it seems difficult to make sense of a human being existing apart from their body. A further issue is with continuity of
personal identity, that is, it is not easy to account for the claim that the person that exists after bodily death is the
same person that existed before.
Bertrand Russell put forth the general scientific argument against the afterlife as follows: Persons are part of the everyday world with which science is concerned, and the conditions which determine their existence are discoverable...we know that the brain is not immortal, and that the organized energy of a living body becomes, as it were, demobilized at death and therefore not available for collective action. All the evidence goes to show that what we regard as our mental life is bound up with brain structure and organized bodily energy. Therefore it is rational to suppose that mental life ceases when bodily life ceases. The argument is only one of probability, but it is as strong as those upon which most scientific conclusions are based. Contra Russell,
J. M. E. McTaggart argues that people have no scientific proof that the mind is dependent on the body in this particular way. As Rowe notes, the fact that the mind depends on the functions of the body while one is alive is not necessarily proof that the mind will cease functioning after death just as a person trapped in a room while depending on the windows to see the outside world might continue to see even after the room ceases to exist.
Buddhism is one religion which, while affirming postmortem existence (through
rebirth), denies the existence of individual souls and instead affirms a deflationary view of personal identity, termed
not-self (
anatta). While
physicalism has generally been seen as hostile to notions of an afterlife, this need not be the case. Abrahamic religions like Christianity have traditionally held that life after death will include the element of bodily resurrection. One objection to this view is that it seems difficult to account for personal continuity, at best, a resurrected body is a replica of the resurrected person not the same person. One response is the constitution view of persons, which says persons are constituted by their bodies and by a "first-person perspective", the capacity to think of oneself
as oneself. In this view, what is resurrected is that first person perspective, or both the person's body and that perspective. An objection to this view is that it seems difficult to differentiate one person's first person perspective from another person's without reference to temporal and spatial relations. This view tends to be the orthodox view of most monotheistic religions, such as Christianity and Islam, though liberal and modernist trends within them might differ. The philosopher
William L Rowe outlines two problems with this view. The first problem is that it is easy to see that if this is true, a large portion of humanity is excluded from salvation and it is hard to see how a loving god would desire this. The second problem is that once we become acquainted with the saintly figures and virtuous people in other religions, it can be difficult to see how we could say they are excluded from salvation just because they are not part of our religion. A different view is inclusivism, which is the idea that "one's own tradition alone has the whole truth but that this truth is nevertheless partially reflected in other traditions." An inclusivist might maintain that their religion is privileged, they can also hold that other religious adherents have fundamental truths and even that they will be saved or liberated. The Jain view of
Anekantavada ('many-sidedness') has been interpreted by some as a tolerant view which is an inclusive acceptance of the partial truth value of non-Jain religious ideas. As
Paul Dundas notes, the Jains ultimately held the thesis that Jainism is the final truth, while other religions only contain partial truths. Other scholars such as Kristin Beise Kiblinger have also argued that some of the Buddhist traditions include inclusivist ideas and attitudes. In the modern Western study of religion, the work of
Ninian Smart has also been instrumental in representing a more diverse understanding of religion and religious pluralism. Smart's view is that there are genuine differences between religions. Pluralism is the view that all religions are equally valid responses to the divine and that they are all valid paths to personal transformation. This approach is taken by
John Hick, who has developed a pluralistic view which synthesizes components of various religious traditions. Hick promotes an idea of a noumenal sacred reality which different religions provide us access to. For Hick, all religions are true because they all allow us to encounter the divine reality, even if they have different deities and conceptions of it. Rowe notes that a similar idea is proposed by
Paul Tillich's concept of
Being-itself. The view of
perennialism is that there is a single or core truth or experience which is shared by all religions even while they use different terms and language to express it. This view is espoused by the likes of
Aldous Huxley, the thinkers of the
Traditionalist School as well as
Neo-Vedanta. Yet another way of responding to the conflicting truth claims of religions is
Relativism.
Joseph Runzo., one of its most prominent defenders, has argued for
henofideism which states that the truth of a religious worldview is relative to each community of adherents. Thus while religions have incompatible views, each one is individually valid as they emerge from individual experiences of a plurality of phenomenal divine realities. According to Runzo, this view does not reduce the incompatible ideas and experiences of different religions to mere interpretations of the Real and thus preserves their individual dignity.
Sigmund Freud was a famous proponent of this view, in various publications such as
The Future of an Illusion (1927) and
Civilization and Its Discontents (1930). According to Freud, "Religion is an illusion and it derives its strength from the fact that it falls in with our instinctual desires." While one can be skeptical towards the claims of religion, one need not be hostile towards religion.
Don Cupitt is one example of someone who, while disbelieving in the metaphysical and cosmological claims of his religion, holds that one can practice it with a "non-realist" perspective which sees religious claims as human inventions and myths to live by.
Religious language The question of religious language and in what sense it can be said to be meaningful has been a central issue of the philosophy of religion since the work of the
Vienna circle, a group of philosophers who, influenced by
Wittgenstein, put forth the theory of
Logical positivism. Their view was that religious language, such as any talk of God cannot be verified empirically and thus was ultimately meaningless. This position has also been termed
theological noncognitivism. A similar view can be seen in
David Hume's
An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, where he famously wrote that any work which did not include either (1) abstract reasoning on quantity or number or (2) reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence was "nothing but sophistry and illusion". In a similar vein,
Antony Flew, questioned the validity of religious statements because they do not seem to be
falsifiable, that is, religious claims do not seem to allow any counter evidence to count against them and thus they seem to be lacking in content. While such arguments were popular in the 1950s and 60s, the
verification principle and
falsifiability as a criterion for meaning are no longer as widely held. The main problem with verificationism is that it seems to be self refuting, for it is a claim which does not seem to be supported by its own criterion. The
via negativa has been defended by thinkers such as
Maimonides who denied that positive statements about God were helpful and wrote: "you will come nearer to the knowledge and comprehension of God by the negative attributes." Similar approaches based on negation can be seen in the Hindu doctrine of
Neti neti and the Buddhist philosophy of
Madhyamaka.
Wittgenstein's theory of
language games also shows how one can use analogical religious language to describe God or religious truths, even if the words one is using do not in this case refer to their everyday sense, i.e. when we say God is wise, we do not mean he is wise in the same sense that a person is wise, yet it can still make sense to talk in this manner. However, as Patrick Sherry notes, the fact that this sort of language may make sense does not mean that one is warranted in ascribing these terms to God, for there must be some connection between the relevant criteria we use in ascribing these terms to conventional objects or subjects and to God. As Chad Meister notes though, for Wittgenstein, a religion's
language game need not reflect some literal picture of reality (as a
picture theory of meaning would hold) but is useful simply because its ability to "reflect the practices and forms of life of the various religious adherents." Following Wittgenstein, philosophers of religion like
Norman Malcolm, B. R. Tilghman, and
D. Z. Phillips have argued that instead of seeing religious language as referring to some objective reality, we should instead see it as referring to
forms of life. This approach is generally termed non-realist. Against this view, realists respond that non-realism subverts religious belief and the intelligibility of religious practice. It is hard to see for example, how one can pray to a God without believing that they really exist. Realists also argue that non-realism provides no normative way to choose between competing religions. ==Analytic philosophy of religion==