History of fashion modelling Early years In
14th-century Europe, fashion had been displayed in miniature form to (often royal) clients by
fashion dolls, before the clothes were made in human size. Modelling as a profession was first established in 1853 by
Charles Frederick Worth, the "father of
haute couture", when he asked his wife,
Marie Vernet Worth, to model the potential clients for the clothes he designed. The term "house model" was coined to describe this type of work. Eventually, this became common practice for
Parisian fashion houses where such women were called
mannequins, a meaning of that word adopted and retained in British English in the 1880s then used less commonly after World War II. There were no standard physical measurement requirements for a model, and most designers would use women of varying sizes to demonstrate variety in their
designs. The modelling profession expanded to photo modelling with the development of
fashion photography. Models remained fairly anonymous, and relatively poorly paid, until the late 1940s, when the world's first three supermodels,
Barbara Goalen,
Bettina Graziani and
Lisa Fonssagrives began commanding very large sums. During the 1940s and 1950s, Graziani was the most photographed woman in France and the undisputed queen of couture, while Fonssagrives appeared on over 200
Vogue covers; her name recognition led to the importance of
Vogue in shaping the careers of fashion models. One of the most popular models during the 1940s was
Jinx Falkenburg, who was paid $25 per hour, a large sum at the time; through the 1950s,
Wilhelmina Cooper,
Jean Patchett,
Dovima,
Dorian Leigh,
Suzy Parker,
Evelyn Tripp and
Carmen Dell'Orefice also dominated fashion.
Dorothea Church was among the first black models in the industry to gain recognition in Paris. However, these models were unknown outside the fashion community.
Wilhelmina Cooper's measurements were 38"-24"-36" whereas
Chanel Iman's measurements are 32"-23"-33". In 1946,
Ford Models was established by
Eileen and
Gerard Ford in New York, making it one of the oldest model agencies in the world.
The 1960s and the beginning of the industry at a
fashion show In the 1960s, the modelling world established
modelling agencies. Throughout Europe, secretarial services acted as models' agents charging them weekly rates for their messages and bookings. For the most part, models were responsible for their own billing. In Germany, agents were not allowed to work for a percentage of a person's earnings, so they referred to themselves as secretaries. Except for a few models travelling to Paris or New York, travelling was relatively unheard of for a model. Most models only worked in one market due to different labour laws governing modelling in various countries. In the 1960s, Italy had many fashion houses and
fashion magazines but desperately needed models. Italian agencies often coerced models to return to Italy without work visas by withholding their pay. They would also pay their models in cash, which models would have to hide from
customs agents. It was not uncommon for models staying in hotels such as La Louisiana in
Paris or the Arena in
Milan to have their hotel rooms raided by the police looking for their work visas. It was rumoured that competing agencies were behind the raids. This led many agencies to form worldwide chains; for example, the
Marilyn Agency has branches in Paris and New York. Twiggy became The Face of '66 at the age of 16. At this time, model agencies were not as restrictive about the models they represented, although it was uncommon for them to sign shorter models. Twiggy, who stood at with a 32" bust and had a boy's haircut, is credited with changing model ideals. At that time, she earned an hour, while the average wage was a week. in 1965 In 1967, seven of the top model agents in London formed the Association of London Model Agents. The formation of this association helped legitimise modelling and changed the fashion industry. Even with a more professional attitude towards modelling, models were still expected to have their hair and makeup done before they arrived at a shoot. Meanwhile, agencies took responsibility for a model's promotional materials and branding. That same year, former top fashion model
Wilhelmina Cooper opened up her own fashion agency with her husband called
Wilhelmina Models. By 1968, FM Agency and
Models 1 were established and represented models in a similar way that agencies do today. By the late 1960s, models were treated better and were making better wages. One of the innovators, Ford Models, was the first agency to advance models money they were owed and would often allow teen models, who did not live locally, to reside in their house, a precursor to model housing.
The 1970s and 1980s The innovations of the 1960s flowed into the 1970s fashion scene. As a result of model industry associations and standards, model agencies became more business minded, and more thought went into a model's promotional materials. By this time, agencies were starting to pay for a model's publicity. and printing their names by their photos, thus turning many of them into household names and establishing the issue as a hallmark of
supermodel status. Models, including
Iman,
Grace Jones,
Pat Cleveland,
Alva Chinn,
Donyale Luna,
Minah Bird,
Naomi Sims, and
Toukie Smith were some of the top black fashion models who paved the way for black women in fashion. In 1975,
Margaux Hemingway landed a then-unprecedented million-dollar contract as the face of
Fabergé's Babe perfume and the same year appeared on the cover of
Time magazine, labeled one of the "New Beauties", giving further name recognition to fashion models. Many of the world's most prominent modeling agencies were established in the 1970s and early 1980s. These agencies created the standard by which agencies now run. In 1974, Nevs Models was established in London with only a men's board, the first of its kind. Elite Models was founded in Paris in 1975, as well as Friday's Models in
Japan. The next year Cal-Carries was established in
Singapore, the first of a chain of agencies in Asia. In 1977, Select Model Management and Why Not Models in Milan opened its doors. By the 1980s, agencies such as Premier Model Management, Storm Models, Mikas, Marilyn, and Metropolitan Models had been established. , one of the most famous
supermodels In October 1981,
Life cited
Shelley Hack, Lauren Hutton and Iman for
Revlon, Margaux Hemingway for
Fabergé,
Karen Graham for
Estée Lauder,
Cristina Ferrare for
Max Factor, and Cheryl Tiegs for
CoverGirl by proclaiming them the "million dollar faces" of the beauty industry. These models negotiated previously unheard-of lucrative and exclusive deals with giant cosmetics companies, were instantly recognizable, and their names became well known to the public. By the 1980s, most models could make modeling a full-time career.
Patti Hansen, one of the top earning models in 1980, earned $200 an hour for print and $2,000 for television plus
residuals; it was estimated that she earned about $300,000 a year in 1980 (equivalent to $ in ). It was common for models to travel abroad and work throughout Europe. As modeling became global, numerous agencies began to think globally. In 1980, Ford Models, the innovator of scouting, introduced the
Ford Models Supermodel of the World contest. That same year, John Casablancas opened
Elite Models in New York. In 1981, cosmetics companies began contracting top models to lucrative
endorsement deals. By 1983, Elite had developed its own contest, the Elite Model Look competition. In New York, during the 1980s there were so-called "model wars" in which the Ford and Elite agencies fought over models and campaigns. Models were jumping back and forth between agencies such Elite, Wilhelmina, and Ford. In New York, the late 1980s trend was the boyish look in which models had short cropped hair and looked
androgynous. In Europe, the trend was the exact opposite. During this time, many American models who were considered more feminine-looking moved abroad. By the mid-1980s, big hair was made popular by some musical groups, and the boyish look was out. The
hourglass figure, a fashionable trend from the late 1940s to the early 1960s, made a comeback.
1990s , part of the
heroin chic trend The high fashion models of the late 1980s dominated the early 1990s. In 1990,
Linda Evangelista famously said to
Vogue, "we don't wake up for less than $10,000 a day". Evangelista and her contemporaries,
Naomi Campbell,
Cindy Crawford,
Christy Turlington,
Tatjana Patitz,
Stephanie Seymour, and
Yasmeen Ghauri became arguably the most recognisable models in the world, earning the moniker of "
supermodel", and were boosted to global recognition and new heights of wealth for the industry. In 1991, Turlington signed a contract with
Maybelline that paid her $800,000 for twelve days' work each year. By the mid‑1990s, the new "
heroin chic" trend became popular amongst New York and London editorial clients.
Kate Moss became its poster child through her ads for
Calvin Klein. Moss' friend, socialite
Annabelle Neilson, was becoming increasingly well known at this time. With the popularity of lingerie retailer
Victoria's Secret, and the
Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue, there was a need for healthier-looking supermodels such as
Tyra Banks and
Heidi Klum to meet commercial modelling demand. The mid‑1990s also saw many Asian countries establishing modelling agencies. By the late 1990s, the heroin chic era had run its course. Teen-inspired clothing infiltrated mainstream fashion, teen
pop music was on the rise, and artists such as
Britney Spears,
Aaliyah and
Christina Aguilera popularised
pleather and bare midriffs. As fashion changed to a more youthful
demographic, the models who rose to fame had to be sexier for the digital age. Following
Gisele Bündchen's breakthrough, a wave of
Brazilian models including
Adriana Lima and
Alessandra Ambrosio rose to fame on runways and became popular in commercial modelling throughout the 2000s. Some have tied this increase in Brazilian models to the trend of magazines featuring celebrities instead of models on their covers.
2000s and since in 2006 In the late 2000s, the Brazilians fell out of favour on the runways. Editorial clients were favouring models with a china-doll or alien look to them, such as
Gemma Ward and
Lily Cole. During the 2000s, Ford Models and
NEXT Model Management were engaged in a legal battle, with each agency alleging that the other was stealing its models. , an Australian model However, the most significant controversy of the 2000s was the health of high-fashion models participating in fashion week. While the health of models had been a concern since the 1970s, there were several high-profile news stories surrounding the deaths of young fashion models due to
eating disorders and
drug abuse. The
British Fashion Council subsequently asked designers to sign a contract stating they would not use models under the age of sixteen. On March 3, 2012,
Vogue banned models under the age of sixteen as well as models who appeared to have an eating disorder. Similarly, other countries placed bans on unhealthy, and underage models, including
Spain,
Italy,
Israel and
France, which all enacted a minimum
body mass index (BMI) requirement. The French law also requires digitally altered pictures of models to be identified as such. In 2013, New York toughened its child labour law protections for models under the age of eighteen by passing New York Senate Bill No. 5486, which gives underage models the same labour protections afforded to child actors. Key new protections included the following: underage models are not to work before 5:00 pm or after 10:00 pm on school nights, nor were they to work later than 12:30 am on non-school nights; the models may not return to work less than twelve hours after they leave; a pediatric nurse must be on-site; an adult chaperone must accompany models under sixteen; parents or guardians of underage models must create a trust fund account into which employers will transfer a minimum of 15% of the
child model's gross earnings; and employers must set aside time and a dedicated space for educational instruction.
Runway modelling Catwalk or runway models, also called live models, display clothes from fashion designers, fashion media, and consumers. During runway shows, models have to constantly change clothes and makeup. Models walk, turn, and stand to demonstrate a garment's key features. Models also go to interviews (called "go and sees") to present their portfolios. A runway model can also work in other areas, such as department store fashion shows, and the most successful models sometimes create their own product lines or go into acting., 2008 Top runway models travel around the world to attend fashion shows. The most prestigious events are held in
New York City,
London,
Paris, and
Milan. Second-tier international fashion centre cities include
Rome,
Florence,
Venice,
Brescia,
Barcelona,
Los Angeles, Tokyo, and
Moscow. The criteria for runway models include certain height and weight requirements. The British Association of Model Agents (AMA) says that female models should be around 34"-24"-34" and between and tall. The average model is very slender. Those not meeting the size requirement may try to become a
plus-size model. According to the New York Better Business Career Services website, the preferred dimensions for a male model are a height of to , a waist of and a chest measurement of . Male runway models are notably skinny and well toned. Male and female models must also possess clear skin, healthy hair, and attractive facial features. Stringent weight and body proportion guidelines form the selection criteria by which established, and would‑be, models are judged for their placement suitability, on an ongoing basis. There can be some variation regionally, and by market tier, subject to current prevailing trends at any point, in any era, by agents, agencies and end-clients. Formerly, the required measurements for models were 35"-23.5"-35" in (90-60-90 cm), the alleged measurements of
Marilyn Monroe. Today's fashion models tend to have measurements closer to the AMA-recommended shape, but some – such as
Afghan model
Zohre Esmaeli – still have 35"-23.5"-35" measurements. Although in some fashion centres, a size 00 is more desirable than a size 0. The often thin shape of many fashion models has been criticised for warping girls'
body image and encouraging
eating disorders. Organisers of a fashion show in
Madrid in September 2006 turned away models who were judged to be
underweight by medical personnel who were on hand. In February 2007 a
Uruguayan model,
Luisel Ramos, died from heart problems secondary to malnutrition. Her sister
Eliana Ramos also was a model and had died immediately after a runway show several months prior. They were amongst the three fashion models to die of
malnutrition in a six-month span. The other victim was
Ana Carolina Reston.
Luisel Ramos died of
heart failure caused by
anorexia nervosa just after stepping off the
catwalk. In 2015,
France passed a law requiring models to be declared healthy by a doctor to participate in fashion shows. The law also requires re-touched images to be marked as such in magazines.
Magazine modelling Fashion modelling also includes modelling clothing in
fashion magazines. In Japan, there are different types of fashion magazine models. are models who regularly appear in a fashion magazine and model exclusively for it. On the other hand, street models, or , are amateur models who model part-time for fashion magazines in conjunction to school work and their main jobs. Unlike professional models, street models are meant to represent the average person in appearance and do not appear on runways.
Normal-size is a normal-size or "middle model" at size 4/6. Also known as the "in-between" and "middle models", they are neither considered catalogue size (0–2) nor plus-size (10 up). There is criticism that these models have been left out of the conversation because fashion companies and brands opt to employ the extremes of the spectrum. Model
Camille Kostek who was on a solo cover of
Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue in 2019 has stated that she was told by a well-known international modelling agency "...that it was too bad that I wasn't a size 10. That plus size is a big market right now and it's too bad I wasn't measuring bigger. My size (4/6) is considered an "in-between size", meaning I'm not a straight model nor plus model, I'm right in the middle. Actress
Mindy Kaling has described this body type in her 2011 book
Is Everybody Hanging Out Without Me? writing, "Since I am not model-skinny, but also not super-fat... I fall into that nebulous, 'Normal American Woman Size' that legions of fashion stylists detest... Many stylists hate that size because, I think, to them, I lack the self-discipline to be an aesthetic, or the sassy confidence to be a total fatty hedonist. They're like, 'Pick a lane.'"
Black models The arrival of black women modelling as a profession began in early postwar America. It started most notably from the need of advertisers and a rise of black photography magazines. The women who advanced in such careers were those in a middle-class system emphasising the conservative value of marriage, motherhood, and domesticity. Originally titled the "Brownskin" model, black women refined the social, sexual, and racial realities confined in the gender expectations of the modelling world. There was a profound need for black women to partake in the advertising process for the new "Negro Market". With the help of Branford Models, the first black agency, 1946 was the beginning of the black modelling era. Branford Models' was able to "overturn the barriers facing African Americans in the early postwar period," especially by lifting at least one economic freedom. While they represented diversity, a major gap in the fashion industry, it was only until the 1970s that black models had a substantial presence in the modelling world. Known as the "Black is Beautiful" movement, the 1970s became the era of the black model. With growing disenfranchisement and racial inequality, the United States recognised the urgency of opening the "doors of social access and visibility to black Americans". The world of fashion was the gateway for social change. "The world of fashion was similarly looked to as a place where the culture could find signs of racial progress. Expressions of beauty and glamour mattered. Good race relations required taking note of who was selling women lipsticks and mini skirts, which meant that advertisers began looking for black models" In the Life Magazine issue, Black Beauty, a new agency that represented black models, had a spread in the magazine that showcased 39 black models. Each one of the models had unique features, allowing black expression to progress through this historic magazine spread. In response, models like Campbell, Iman, and Bethann Hardison, joined forces throughout the"Diversity Coalition" in an attempt to "call out and accuse prominent fashion houses for snubbing Black and Asian models on the catwalk, editorial spreads, and campaigns". Now, models like
Joan Smalls,
Winne Harlow,
Slick Woods,
Jasmine Sanders and more are continuing the fight for black presence in the modelling world and using their successors as inspiration.
Fitting models A
fit model (sometimes
fitting model) is a person who is used by a
fashion designer or
clothing manufacturer to check the fit, drape and visual appearance of a design on a representative human being, effectively acting as a live
mannequin.
Parts models Some models are employed for their body parts. For example,
hand models may be used to promote products held in the hand and
nail-related products. (e.g. rings, other jewelry or
nail polish). They are frequently part of television commercials. Many parts models have exceptionally attractive body parts, but there is also demand for unattractive or unusual looking body parts for particular campaigns. Hands are the most in-demand body parts. Feet models are also in high demand, particularly those that fit sample-size shoes. Models are also successful modelling other specific parts including abs, arms, back, bust or chest, legs, and lips. Some petite models (females who are under and do not qualify as fashion models) have found success in women's body part modelling. Parts model divisions can be found at agencies worldwide. Several agencies solely represent parts models, including Hired Hands in London, Body Parts Models in Los Angeles, Carmen Hand Model Management in New York and
Parts Models in New York. Parts Models is the largest parts agency, representing over 300 parts models.
Petite models Petite models are models that are under the typical height requirements that are expected of fashion models. Petite models typically work more often in commercial and print modelling (rather than runway modelling). The height of fashion models is typically and above for women, and and above for men. Models who are shorter than these heights usually fall under the category of petite or commercial models.
Podium models Podium models differ from runway models in that they do not walk down a runway, but rather just stand on an elevated platform. They resemble live mannequins placed in various places throughout an event. Attendees can walk up to the models and inspect and even feel the clothing. Podium Modelling is a practical alternative way of presenting a fashion show when space is too limited to have a full runway fashion show.
Earnings and demographics According to the
Bureau of Labor Statistics the median earnings for a model in the United States, as of 2021, is $34,000 annually. There are approximately 3,200 men and women who work as models full-time in the United States. ==Glamour models==