Prehistory ,
Indonesia, in 2018, is considered among the world's oldest known figurative paintings. The painting is estimated to have been created around 40,000 to 52,000 years ago, or even earlier. , the largest megalithic site in Southeast Asia. The region was already inhabited by
Homo erectus from approximately 1,500,000 years ago during the
Middle Pleistocene age. Distinct
Homo sapiens groups, ancestral to Eastern non-African (related to East Asians as well as Papuans) populations, reached the region by between 50,000BC to 70,000BC, with some arguing earlier.
Rock art (parietal art) dating from 40,000 to 60,000 years ago (which is currently the world's oldest) has been discovered in the caves of
Sulawesi and
Borneo (
Kalimantan).
Homo floresiensis also lived in the area up until at least 50,000 years ago, after which they became extinct. During much of this time the present-day islands of
Western Indonesia were joined into a single landmass with the
Malay Peninsula known as
Sundaland due to much lower sea levels. The
Gulf of Thailand was dry land which connected Sundaland with
Mainland Southeast Asia. Distinctive
Basal-East Eurasian (Eastern non-African) ancestry was recently found to have originated in Mainland Southeast Asia at ~50,000BC, and expanded through multiple migration waves southwards and northwards respectively, giving rise to both Oceanian (Papuan related) and basal East Asian (
Onge and
Tianyuan related) lineages. The pre-Neolithic Oceanian-related populations of Maritime Southeast Asia were largely replaced by the expansion of various East Asian-related populations, beginning about 50,000BC to 25,000BC years ago from Mainland Southeast Asia. East Asian-related ancestry was already widespread across Southeast Asia by 15,000BC, predating the expansion of
Austroasiatic and
Austronesian peoples. and
Austronesian expansions into Maritime Southeast Asia. In the late
Neolithic, the
Austronesian peoples, who form the majority of the modern population in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Timor-Leste, migrated to Southeast Asia from
Taiwan in the first seaborne human migration known as the
Austronesian Expansion. They arrived in the northern Philippines between 7,000 BC to 2,200 BC and rapidly spread further into the
Northern Mariana Islands and
Borneo by 1500 BC;
Island Melanesia by 1300 BC; and to the rest of
Indonesia,
Malaysia, southern
Vietnam, and
Palau by 1000 BC. They often settled along coastal areas, replacing and assimilating the diverse preexisting peoples. The remainders of these preexisting populations, known as Negritos, form small minority groups in geographically isolated regions. Passage through the Indian Ocean aided the colonisation of Madagascar, as well as commerce between Western Asia, eastern coast of India and Chinese southern coast. A
slave from the
Sulu Sea was believed to have been used in the
Magellan expedition as a translator. Studies presented by the
Human Genome Organisation (HUGO) through genetic studies of the various peoples of Asia show empirically that there was a single migration event from Africa, whereby the early people travelled along the south coast of Asia, first entered the Malay Peninsula 50,000–90,000 years ago. The Orang Asli, in particular the
Semang who show Negrito characteristics, are the direct descendants of these earliest settlers of Southeast Asia. These early people diversified and travelled slowly northwards to China, and the populations of Southeast Asia show greater genetic diversity than the younger population of China. Solheim and others have shown evidence for a
Nusantao maritime trading network ranging from
Vietnam to the rest of the archipelago as early as 5000 BC to 1 AD. The
Bronze Age Dong Son culture flourished in
Northern Vietnam from about 1000 BC to 1 BC. Its influence spread to other parts Southeast Asia. The region entered the
Iron Age era in 500 BC, when iron was forged also in northern Vietnam still under Dong Son, due to its frequent interactions with neighbouring
China. Indian Brahmins and traders brought Hinduism to the region and made contacts with local courts. Local rulers converted to Hinduism or Buddhism and adopted Indian religious traditions to reinforce their legitimacy, elevate ritual status above their fellow chief counterparts and facilitate trade with South Asian states. They periodically invited Indian Brahmins into their realms and began a gradual process of
Indianisation in the region.
Shaivism was the dominant religious tradition of many southern Indian Hindu kingdoms during the first century. It then spread into Southeast Asia via the
Bay of Bengal, Indochina, then Malay Archipelago, leading to thousands of Shiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with
Buddhism in the region.
Theravada Buddhism entered the region during the third century, via maritime trade routes between the region and
Sri Lanka. Buddhism later established a strong presence in
Funan region in the fifth century. In present-day mainland Southeast Asia, Theravada is still the dominant branch of Buddhism, practised by the Thai, Burmese, and
Cambodian Buddhists. This branch was fused with the Hindu-influenced Khmer culture.
Mahayana Buddhism established presence in Maritime Southeast Asia, brought by Chinese monks during their transit in the region en route to
Nalanda. While in Vietnam, Buddhism never managed to develop strong institutional networks due to strong Chinese influence. In present-day Southeast Asia, Vietnam is the only country where
its folk religion makes up the plurality. Recently, Vietnamese folk religion is undergoing a revival with the support of the government. Elsewhere, there are
ethnic groups in Southeast Asia that resisted conversion and still retain their original animist beliefs, such as the
Dayaks in
Kalimantan, the
Igorots in Luzon, and the
Shans in eastern Myanmar.
Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms era After the region came under contact with the Indian subcontinent , it began a gradual process of
Indianisation where Indian ideas such as religions, cultures, architectures, and political administrations were brought by traders and religious figures and adopted by local rulers. In turn, Indian Brahmins and monks were invited by local rulers to live in their realms and help transforming local polities to become more Indianised, blending Indian and indigenous traditions. Most of the region had been Indianised during the first centuries, while the Philippines later Indianised when the
Kingdom of Tondo was established in Luzon. Vietnam, especially its northern part, was never fully Indianised due to the many periods of
Chinese domination it experienced. The first Indian-influenced polities established in the region were the
Pyu city-states that already existed circa second century BCE, located in inland Myanmar. It served as an overland trading hub between India and China. Theravada Buddhism was the predominant religion of these city states, while the presence of other Indian religions such as Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism were also widespread. In the first century, the
Funan states centered in the
Mekong Delta were established, encompassed modern-day Cambodia, southern Vietnam, Laos, and eastern Thailand. It became the dominant trading power in mainland Southeast Asia for about five centuries, provided passage for Indian and Chinese goods and assumed authority over the flow of commerce through Southeast Asia. temple in
Central Java, Indonesia By the fifth century CE, trade networking between East and West was concentrated in the maritime route. Foreign traders were starting to use new routes such as the
Malacca and
Sunda Straits due to the development of maritime Southeast Asia. This change resulted in the decline of Funan, while new maritime powers such as
Srivijaya,
Tarumanagara, and
Mataram emerged. Srivijaya especially became the dominant maritime power for more than 5 centuries, controlling both
Strait of Malacca and
Sunda Strait. The invasion reshaped power and trade in the region, resulted in the rise of new regional powers such as the
Khmer Empire and
Kahuripan. Continued commercial contacts with the
Chinese Empire enabled the Cholas to influence the local cultures. Many of the surviving examples of the
Hindu cultural influence found today throughout Southeast Asia are the result of the Chola expeditions. in
Siem Reap,
Cambodia As Srivijaya influence in the region declined, The Hindu Khmer Empire experienced a golden age during the 11th to 13th century CE. The empire's capital
Angkor hosts majestic monuments—such as
Angkor Wat and
Bayon. Satellite imaging has revealed that Angkor, during its peak, was the largest pre-industrial urban centre in the world. The
Champa civilisation was located in what is today central Vietnam, and was a highly Indianised Hindu kingdom. The
Vietnamese launched a massive conquest against the
Cham people during the
1471 Vietnamese invasion of Champa, ransacking and burning Champa, slaughtering thousands of Cham people, and forcibly assimilating them into Vietnamese culture. army
waging war with
war elephants against the
Cham in the 12th century, stone relief at the
Bayon During the 13th century CE, the region experienced
Mongol invasions, affecting areas such as the Vietnamese coast, inland Burma (Myanmar) and
Java. In 1258, 1285 and 1287, the Mongols attempted to invade
Đại Việt and
Champa. The invasions were unsuccessful, yet both Dai Viet and Champa agreed to become tributary states to
Yuan dynasty to avoid further conflicts. The Mongols also invaded
Pagan Kingdom in Burma from 1277 to 1287, resulted in fragmentation of the Kingdom and rise of smaller
Shan States ruled by local chieftains nominally submitted to Yuan dynasty. However, in 1297, a new local power emerged.
Myinsaing Kingdom became the real ruler of Central Burma and challenged the Mongol rule. This resulted in the second Mongol invasion of Burma in 1300, which was repulsed by Myinsaing. The Mongols would later in 1303 withdrawn from Burma. In 1292, the Mongols sent envoys to the
Singhasari kingdom in Java to ask for submission to Mongol rule. Singhasari rejected the proposal and injured the envoys, enraged the Mongols and made them sent a large invasion fleet to Java. Unbeknownst to them, Singhasari collapsed in 1293 due to a revolt by
Kadiri, one of its vassals. When the Mongols arrived in Java, a local prince named
Raden Wijaya offered his service to assist the Mongols in punishing Kadiri. After Kadiri was defeated, Wijaya turned on his Mongol allies, ambushed their invasion fleet and forced them to immediately leave Java. After the departure of the Mongols, Wijaya established the
Majapahit Empire in eastern Java in 1293. Majapahit would soon grow into a regional power. Its greatest ruler was
Hayam Wuruk, whose reign from 1350 to 1389 marked the empire's peak when other kingdoms in the southern
Malay Peninsula,
Borneo,
Sumatra, and
Bali came under its influence. Various sources such as the Nagarakertagama also mention that its influence spanned over parts of
Sulawesi,
Maluku, and some areas of
western New Guinea and southern
Philippines, making it one of the largest empire to ever exist in Southeast Asian history. By the 15th century CE however, Majapahit's influence began to wane due to many war of successions it experienced and the rise of new Islamic states such as
Samudera Pasai and
Malacca Sultanate around the strategic
Strait of Malacca. Majapahit then collapsed around 1500. It was the last major Hindu kingdom and the last regional power in the region before the arrival of the
Europeans.
Spread of Islam is the oldest surviving mosque in Indonesia, and the second oldest in Southeast Asia, built in 1414
Islam began to make contacts with Southeast Asia in the eighth-century CE, when the
Umayyads established trade with the region via sea routes. However, it only began to spread into the region centuries later. In the 11th century, a turbulent period occurred in the history of
Maritime Southeast Asia. The Indian
Chola navy crossed the ocean and attacked the
Srivijaya kingdom of Sangrama Vijayatungavarman in Kadaram (
Kedah); the capital of the powerful maritime kingdom was sacked and the king was taken captive. Along with Kadaram, Pannai in present-day
Sumatra and Malaiyur and the Malayan peninsula were attacked too. Soon after that, the king of Kedah Phra Ong Mahawangsa became the first ruler to abandon the traditional
Hindu faith, and converted to Islam with the
Sultanate of Kedah established in 1136.
Samudera Pasai converted to Islam in 1267, the King of Malacca
Parameswara married the princess of Pasai, and the son became the first sultan of Malacca. Soon, Malacca became the center of Islamic study and maritime trade, and other rulers followed suit.
Indonesian religious leader and Islamic scholar
Hamka (1908–1981) wrote in 1961: "The development of Islam in Indonesia and
Malaya is intimately related to a Chinese Muslim, Admiral
Zheng He." Muslims as far as Ottoman Turkey reached Southeast Asia that Melchor Davalos a Spanish officer in Manila, remarked:
Trade and colonization Trade among Southeast Asian countries has a long tradition. The consequences of colonial rule, struggle for independence, and in some cases war influenced the economic attitudes and policies of each country.
Chinese From 111 BC to 938 AD, northern Vietnam was under Chinese rule. Vietnam was successfully governed by a series of Chinese dynasties including the
Han,
Eastern Han,
Eastern Wu,
Cao Wei,
Jin,
Liu Song,
Southern Qi,
Liang,
Sui,
Tang, and
Southern Han. Records from Magellan's voyage show that
Brunei possessed more
cannon than European ships, so the Chinese must have been trading with them. (Venice was a major European trading partner, and goods were transported there via the Strait.)
European in
George Town marks the spot where the
British East India Company first landed in
Penang in 1786, thus heralding the
British colonisation of
Malaya Western influence started to enter in the 16th century, with the arrival of the Portuguese in Malacca,
Maluku, and the Philippines, the latter being settled by the Spaniards years later, which they used to
trade between Asia and Latin America. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, the Dutch established the
Dutch East Indies; the
French Indochina; and the British
Strait Settlements. By the 19th century, all Southeast Asian countries were colonised except for
Thailand. , a coin minted by the
VOC, 1646–1667. 2 kas, 2 duit
European explorers were reaching Southeast Asia from the west and from the east. Regular trade between the ships sailing east from the Indian Ocean and south from mainland Asia provided goods in return for natural products, such as
honey and
hornbill beaks from the islands of the archipelago. Before the 18th and 19th centuries, the Europeans mostly were interested in expanding trade links. For the majority of the populations in each country, there was comparatively little interaction with Europeans and traditional social routines and relationships continued. For most, a life with subsistence-level agriculture, fishing and, in less developed civilisations, hunting and gathering was still hard. Europeans brought
Christianity allowing Christian missionaries to become widespread. Spain, although a European power, sent the
most colonists and have sourced a significant portion of them from the
Americas. This was so, that, Casimiro Díaz once wrote: Thailand also allowed Western scientists to enter its country to develop its own education system as well as start sending royal members and Thai scholars to get higher education from
Europe and
Russia.
Japanese During World War II,
Imperial Japan invaded most of the former western colonies under the concept of "
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere". However, the
Shōwa occupation regime committed violent actions against civilians such as live human experimentation, sexual slavery under the brutal "
comfort women" system, the
Manila massacre and the implementation of a system of
forced labour, such as the one involving four to ten million
romusha in Indonesia. A later UN report stated that four million people died in Indonesia as a result of famine and forced labour during the Japanese occupation. The Allied powers who then defeated Japan (and other allies of
Axis) in the
South-East Asian theatre of World War II then contended with nationalists to whom the occupation authorities had granted independence.
Indian Gujarat, India had a flourishing trade relationship with Southeast Asia in the 15th and 16th centuries. The trade relationship with Gujarat declined after the Portuguese invasion of Southeast Asia in the 17th century.
Contemporary history Most countries in the region maintain national autonomy.
Democratic forms of government are practised in most Southeast Asian countries and human rights is recognised but dependent on each nation state. Socialist or
communist countries in Southeast Asia include Vietnam and Laos.
ASEAN provides a framework for the integration of commerce and regional responses to international concerns. China has asserted broad claims over the
South China Sea, based on its
nine-dash line, and has
built artificial islands in an attempt to bolster its claims. China also has asserted an
exclusive economic zone based on the
Spratly Islands. The
Philippines challenged China in the
Permanent Court of Arbitration in
The Hague in 2013, and in
Philippines v. China (2016), the Court ruled in favour of the Philippines and rejected China's claims.
Indochina Wars ==Geography==