, Maharashtra. 6th century CE
Assimilation of traditions The Shiva-related tradition is a major part of Hinduism, found all over the
Indian subcontinent, such as India,
Nepal,
Sri Lanka, and
Southeast Asia, such as
Bali, Indonesia. Shiva-Rudra may have non-Vedic tribal roots, having "his origins in primitive tribes, signs and symbols," but the oldest literary attestion is the associated Vedic minor deity Rudra, who may also have non-Aryan origins. The figure of Shiva as he is known today is an amalgamation of various older deities into a single figure, due to the process of
Sanskritization and the emergence of the
Hindu synthesis in post-Vedic times. How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well documented, a challenge to trace and has attracted much speculation. According to Vijay Nath: An example of assimilation took place in
Maharashtra, where a regional deity named
Khandoba is a patron deity of farming and herding
castes. The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in
Jejuri. Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself, in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam. Khandoba's varied associations also include an identification with
Surya and
Karttikeya. Myths about Shiva that were "roughly contemporary with early
Christianity" existed that portrayed Shiva with many differences than how he is thought of now, and these mythical portrayals of Shiva were incorporated into later versions of him. For instance, he and the other
gods, from the highest gods to the least powerful gods, were thought of as somewhat human in nature, creating
emotions they had limited control over and having the ability to get in touch with their inner natures through
asceticism like humans. In that era, Shiva was widely viewed as both the god of
lust and of asceticism. In one story, he was seduced by a
prostitute sent by the other gods, who were jealous of Shiva's ascetic lifestyle he had lived for 1000 years.
Pre-Vedic elements Prehistoric art Prehistoric rock paintings dating to the
Mesolithic from
Bhimbetka rock shelters have been interpreted by some authors as depictions of Shiva. However, Howard Morphy states that these prehistoric rock paintings of India, when seen in their context, are likely those of hunting party with animals, and that the figures in a group dance can be interpreted in many different ways.
Indus Valley and the Pashupati seal discovered during excavation of the
Indus Valley archaeological site of
Mohenjo-Daro and showing a possible representation of a "yogi" or "proto-Shiva" figure as
Paśupati (Lord of the Animals" –2000 BCE Of several Indus valley seals that show animals, one seal that has attracted attention shows a large central figure, either
horned or wearing a horned headdress and possibly
ithyphallic, seated in a posture reminiscent of the
Lotus position, surrounded by animals. This figure was named by early excavators of
Mohenjo-daro as
Pashupati (Lord of Animals,
Sanskrit ''''), an epithet of the later
Hindu deities Shiva and Rudra.
Sir John Marshall and others suggested that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, with three faces, seated in a "
yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined. Semi-circular shapes on the head were interpreted as two horns. Scholars such as
Gavin Flood,
John Keay and
Doris Meth Srinivasan have expressed doubts about this suggestion.
Gavin Flood states that it is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure. He characterises these views as "speculative", but adds that it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva
iconographic themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a
bull. John Keay writes that "he may indeed be an early manifestation of Lord Shiva as Pashu-pati", but a couple of his specialties of this figure does not match with Rudra. Writing in 1997, Srinivasan interprets what
John Marshall interpreted as facial as not human but more bovine, possibly a divine buffalo-man. The interpretation of the seal continues to be disputed.
McEvilley, for example, states that it is not possible to "account for this posture outside the yogic account". Asko Parpola states that other archaeological finds such as the early Elamite seals dated to 3000–2750 BCE show similar figures and these have been interpreted as "seated bull" and not a yogi, and the bovine interpretation is likely more accurate. Gregory L. Possehl in 2002, associated it with the water buffalo, and concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognise the figure as a deity, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would "go too far".
Proto-Indo-European elements The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised
Proto-Indo-European religion, and the pre-Islamic Indo-Iranian religion. The similarities between the iconography and theologies of Shiva with Greek and European deities have led to proposals for an
Indo-European link for Shiva, or lateral exchanges with ancient central Asian cultures. His contrasting aspects such as being terrifying or blissful depending on the situation, are similar to those of the Greek god
Dionysus, as are their iconic associations with bull, snakes, anger, bravery, dancing and carefree life. The ancient Greek texts of the time of Alexander the Great call Shiva "Indian Dionysus", or alternatively call Dionysus
"god of the Orient". Similarly, the use of phallic symbol as an icon for Shiva is also found for Irish, Nordic, Greek (Dionysus) and Roman deities, as was the idea of this aniconic column linking heaven and earth among early Indo-Aryans, states Roger Woodward. Others contest such proposals, and suggest Shiva to have emerged from indigenous non-Aryan tribal origins.
Vedic elements Rudra Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god
Rudra, and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in
Hindu scriptures. The two names are used synonymously. Rudra, a
Rigvedic deity with fearsome powers, was the god of the roaring
storm. He is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity. In RV 2.33, he is described as the "Father of the
Rudras", a group of storm gods. Flood notes that Rudra is an ambiguous god, peripheral in the Vedic pantheon, possibly indicating non-Vedic origins. Nevertheless, both Rudra and Shiva are akin to
Wodan, the Germanic God of rage ("wütte") and the
wild hunt. According to Sadasivan, during the development of the
Hindu synthesis attributes of the Buddha were transferred by Brahmins to Shiva, who was also linked with
Rudra. The Rigveda has 3 out of 1,028 hymns dedicated to Rudra, and he finds occasional mention in other hymns of the same text. Hymn 10.92 of the Rigveda states that deity Rudra has two natures, one wild and cruel (Rudra), another that is kind and tranquil (Shiva). The term Shiva also appears simply as an epithet, that means "kind, auspicious", one of the adjectives used to describe many different Vedic deities. While fierce ruthless natural phenomenon and storm-related Rudra is feared in the hymns of the Rigveda, the beneficial rains he brings are welcomed as Shiva aspect of him. This healing, nurturing, life-enabling aspect emerges in the Vedas as Rudra-Shiva, and in post-Vedic literature ultimately as Shiva who combines the destructive and constructive powers, the terrific and the gentle, as the ultimate recycler and rejuvenator of all existence. The Vedic texts do not mention bull or any animal as the transport vehicle (
vahana) of Rudra or other deities. However, post-Vedic texts such as the Mahabharata and the Puranas state the Nandi bull, the Indian
zebu, in particular, as the vehicle of Rudra and of Shiva, thereby unmistakably linking them as same.
Agni Rudra and
Agni have a close relationship. The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual transformation into Rudra-Shiva. The identification of
Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the
Nirukta, an important early text on etymology, which says, "Agni is also called Rudra." The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch: In the
Śatarudrīya, some epithets of Rudra, such as ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and ("Flaming bright"), suggest a fusing of the two deities. Agni is said to be a bull, and Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle,
Nandi. The horns of
Agni, who is sometimes characterised as a bull, are mentioned. In medieval sculpture, both
Agni and the form of Shiva known as
Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature.
Indra , Nepal, dedicated to Shiva as the lord of all beings According to
Wendy Doniger, the Saivite fertility myths and some of the phallic characteristics of Shiva are inherited from
Indra. Doniger gives several reasons for her hypothesis. Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare, the transgression of established mores, the
Aum sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term '''' is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3, 6.45.17, and 8.93.3.) Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull. In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the
Maruts, but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra. Indra himself may have been adopted by the Vedic Aryans from the
Bactria–Margiana Culture. According to Anthony, The texts and artwork of
Jainism show Indra as a dancer, although not identical generally resembling the dancing Shiva artwork found in Hinduism, particularly in their respective mudras. For example, in the Jain caves at
Ellora, extensive carvings show dancing Indra next to the images of
Tirthankaras in a manner similar to Shiva Nataraja. The similarities in the dance iconography suggests that there may be a link between ancient Indra and Shiva.
Development A few texts such as
Atharvashiras Upanishad mention
Rudra, and assert all gods are Rudra, everyone and everything is Rudra, and Rudra is the principle found in all things, their highest goal, the innermost essence of all reality that is visible or invisible. The
Kaivalya Upanishad similarly, states
Paul Deussen – a German Indologist and professor of philosophy, describes the self-realized man as who "feels himself only as the one divine essence that lives in all", who feels identity of his and everyone's consciousness with Shiva (highest Atman), who has found this highest Atman within, in the depths of his heart. Rudra's evolution from a minor Vedic deity to a supreme being is first evidenced in the
Shvetashvatara Upanishad (400–200 BCE), according to Gavin Flood, presenting the earliest seeds of theistic devotion to Rudra-Shiva. Here Rudra-Shiva is identified as the creator of the cosmos and
liberator of Selfs from the birth-rebirth cycle. The Svetasvatara Upanishad set the tone for early Shaivite thought, especially in chapter 3 verse 2 where Shiva is equated with Brahman: "Rudra is truly one; for the knowers of Brahman do not admit the existence of a second". The period of 200 BC to 100 AD also marks the beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on the worship of Shiva as evidenced in other literature of this period. Other scholars such as Robert Hume and Doris Srinivasan state that the
Shvetashvatara Upanishad presents pluralism,
pantheism, or
henotheism, rather than being a text just on Shiva theism. Shaiva devotees and ascetics are mentioned in
Patanjali's
Mahābhāṣya (2nd-century BCE) and in the
Mahabharata. The earliest iconic artworks of Shiva may be from Gandhara and northwest parts of ancient India. There is some uncertainty as the artwork that has survived is damaged and they show some overlap with meditative Buddha-related artwork, but the presence of Shiva's trident and phallic symbolism in this art suggests it was likely Shiva.
Numismatics research suggests that numerous coins of the ancient
Kushan Empire (30–375 CE) that have survived, were images of a god who is probably Shiva. The Shiva in Kushan coins is referred to as Oesho of unclear etymology and origins, but the simultaneous presence of Indra and Shiva in the Kushan era artwork suggest that they were revered deities by the start of the Kushan Empire. The
Shaiva Upanishads are a group of 14 minor Upanishads of Hinduism variously dated from the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE through the 17th century. These extol Shiva as the metaphysical unchanging reality
Brahman and the
Atman (Self), and include sections about rites and symbolisms related to Shiva. The
Shaiva Puranas, particularly the
Shiva Purana and the
Linga Purana, present the various aspects of Shiva, mythologies, cosmology and pilgrimage (
Tirtha) associated with him. The Shiva-related
Tantra literature, composed between the 8th and 11th centuries, are regarded in devotional dualistic Shaivism as
Sruti. Dualistic
Shaiva Agamas which consider Self within each living being and Shiva as two separate realities (dualism,
dvaita), are the foundational texts for
Shaiva Siddhanta. Other Shaiva Agamas teach that these are one reality (monism,
advaita), and that Shiva is the Self, the perfection and truth within each living being. In Shiva related sub-traditions, there are ten dualistic Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism-cum-dualism Agama texts and sixty-four monism Agama texts. Shiva-related literature developed extensively across India in the 1st millennium CE and through the 13th century, particularly in Kashmir and Tamil Shaiva traditions. Shaivism gained immense popularity in
Tamilakam as early as the 7th century CE, with poets such as
Appar and
Sambandar composing rich poetry that is replete with present features associated with the deity, such as his
tandava dance, the mulavam (
dumru), the aspect of holding fire, and restraining the proud flow of the Ganga upon his braid. The monist Shiva literature posit absolute oneness, that is Shiva is within every man and woman, Shiva is within every living being, Shiva is present everywhere in the world including all non-living being, and there is no spiritual difference between life, matter, man and Shiva. The various dualistic and monist Shiva-related ideas were welcomed in medieval southeast Asia, inspiring numerous Shiva-related temples, artwork and texts in Indonesia, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and Malaysia, with syncretic integration of local pre-existing theologies. == Position within Hinduism ==