The parashah is discussed in these
rabbinic sources from the era of the
Mishnah and the
Talmud:
Genesis chapter 1 Interpretations regarding the time before creation bet Rabbi Jonah taught in the name of
Rabbi Levi that the world was created with a letter
bet (the first letter in Genesis 1:1, which begins ,
bereishit bara Elohim, "In the beginning God created"), because just as the letter
bet is closed at the sides but open in front, so one is not permitted to investigate what is above and what is below, what is before and what is behind. Similarly,
Bar Kappara reinterpreted the words of Deuteronomy 4:32 to say, "ask
not of the days past, which were before you, since the day that God created man upon the earth," teaching that one may speculate from the day that days were created, but one should not speculate on what was before that. And one may investigate from one end of heaven to the other, but one should not investigate what was before this world. Both
Rabbi Joḥanan and
Rabbi Eleazar (or other say
Resh Lakish) compared this to a human king who instructed his servants to build a great palace on a garbage dump. Just as after they built the palace for him, the king did not wish to hear mention of the dump, the chaos before the world should not be mentioned. Similarly, the Mishnah taught that one should not teach about the Creation to more than one student. ) A
midrash (rabbinic commentary) explained that six things preceded the creation of the world: the
Torah and the
Throne of Glory were created, the creation of the
Patriarchs was contemplated, the creation of
Israel was contemplated, the creation of the
Temple in Jerusalem was contemplated, and the name of the
Messiah was contemplated, as well as repentance. The temporal order of these six things, however, was debated by rabbis. Rabbi
Abba bar Kahana, opined that the Torah came first compared to the throne of glory inferring from Proverbs 8:22 and Psalms 93:2. In the name of Rabbi
Samuel bar Isaac, rabbi
Huna and
Yirmeya said the contemplation of creation of Israel should have been first because the texts in the torah addresses in the phrase "command or speak to the children of Israel" before any Israel related stuff appears in the torah, and uses the metaphor of a king that commands to give an ink and inkwell to his son, who as of that time he does not have to show that he "contemplated" before his son was born.
The implied creator from creation A midrash taught that a heretic once asked
Rabbi Akiva who created the world. Rabbi Akiva answered that God had. The heretic demanded that Rabbi Akiva give him clear proof. Rabbi Akiva asked him what he was wearing. The heretic said that it was a garment. Rabbi Akiva asked him who made it. The heretic replied that a weaver had. Rabbi Akiva demanded that the heretic give him proof. The heretic asked Rabbi Akiva whether he did not realize that a garment is made by a weaver. Rabbi Akiva replied by asking the heretic whether he did not realize that the world was made by God. When the heretic had left, Rabbi Akiva's disciples asked him to explain his proof. Rabbi Akiva replied that just as a house implies a builder, a dress implies a weaver, and a door implies a carpenter, so the world proclaims the God who created it.
Septuagint translation story It was taught in a
baraita that
Ptolemy brought together 72 elders, placed them in 72 separate rooms without telling them why, and directed each of them to translate the Torah (into Greek as the
Septuagint). God then prompted each one of them, and they all conceived the same idea and wrote for Genesis 1:1: "God created in the beginning" (instead of "In the beginning, God created," to prevent readers from reading into the text two creating powers, "In the beginning" and "God").
Tabernacle comparisons Rav Haviva of Hozna'ah told
Rav Assi (or some say that Rav Assi said) that the words, "And it came to pass in the first month of the second year, on the first day of the month," in Exodus 40:17 showed that the
Tabernacle was erected on the first of
Nisan(the start of spring in the hebrew calendar). With reference to this, a
Tanna taught that the first of Nisan took ten crowns of distinction by virtue of the ten momentous events that occurred on that day. The first of Nisan was: (1) the first day of the Creation (as reported in Genesis 1:1–5), (2) the first day of the princes' offerings (as reported in
Numbers 7:10–17), (3) the first day for the priesthood to make the sacrificial offerings (as reported in
Leviticus 9:1–21), (4) the first day for public sacrifice, (5) the first day for the descent of fire from Heaven (as reported in Leviticus 9:24), (6) the first for the priests' eating of sacred food in the sacred area, (7) the first for the dwelling of the
Shechinah in Israel (as implied by Exodus 25:8), (8) the first for the
Priestly Blessing of Israel (as reported in Leviticus 9:22, employing the blessing prescribed by Numbers 6:22–27), (9) the first for the prohibition of the
high places (as stated in Leviticus 17:3–4), and (10) the first of the months of the year (as instructed in Exodus 12:2). Similarly, a baraita compared the day that God created the universe with the day that the
Israelites dedicated the Tabernacle. Reading the words of Leviticus 9:1, "And it came to pass on the eighth day," a baraita taught that on that day (when the Israelites dedicated the Tabernacle) there was joy before God as on the day when God created heaven and earth. For Leviticus 9:1 says, "And it came to pass (,
va-yehi) on the eighth day," and Genesis 1:5 says, "And there was (,
va-yehi) one day."
Ten things in creation Rav Zutra bar Tobiah said in the name of
Rav that the world was created with ten things: (1) wisdom, (2) understanding, (3) reason, (4) strength, (5) rebuke, (6) might, (7) righteousness, (8) judgment, (9) loving-kindness, and (10) compassion. The Mishnah taught that God created the world with ten Divine utterances. Noting that God could have created the world with a single utterance, the Mishnah explained that if God had done so, people would think less of the world and have less compunction about undoing God's creation. Rabbi Joḥanan taught that the ten utterances with which God created the world account for the rule taught in a baraita cited by Rabbi Shimi that no fewer than ten verses of the Torah should be read in the synagogue. The ten verses represent God's ten utterances. The
Gemara explained that the ten utterances are indicated by the ten uses of "And [God] said" in Genesis 1. To the objection that these words appear only nine times in Genesis 1, the Gemara responded that the words "In the beginning" also count as a creative utterance. For Psalm 33:6 says, "By the word of the Lord the heavens were made, and all the host of them by the breath of his mouth" (and thus one may learn that the heavens and earth were created by Divine utterance before the action of Genesis 1:1 takes place).
Rav Judah said in Rav's name that ten things were created on the first day: (1) heaven, (2) earth, (3) chaos (,
tohu), (4) desolation or void (,
bohu), (5) light, (6) darkness, (7) wind, (8) water, (9) the length of a day, and (10) the length of a night. The Gemara cited verses to support Rav Judah's proposition: heaven and earth, as Genesis 1:1 says, "In the beginning God created heaven and earth";
tohu and
bohu, as Genesis 1:2 says, "and the earth was
tohu and
bohu"; darkness, as Genesis 1:2 says, "and darkness was upon the face of the deep; light, as Genesis 1:3 says, "And God said, 'Let there be light'"; wind and water, as Genesis 1:2 says, "and the wind of God hovered over the face of the waters"; and the length of a day and the length of a night, as Genesis 1:5 says, "And there was evening and there was morning, one day." Similarly, Rabbi Judah bar Simon interpreted Genesis 1:5, "And God called the light day," to symbolize Jacob; "and the darkness God called night," to symbolize Esau; "and there was evening," to symbolize Esau; "and there was morning," to symbolize Jacob. And "one day" teaches that God gave Israel one unique day over which darkness has no influence—the Day of Atonement. Interpreting the words "God called the light (,
or) day" in Genesis 1:5, the Gemara hypothesized that
or () might thus be read to mean "daytime." The Gemara further hypothesized from its use in Genesis 1:5 that
or () might be read to mean the time when light begins to appear—that is, daybreak. If so, then one would need to interpret the continuation of Genesis 1:5, "and the darkness God called night," to teach that "night" (,
lailah) similarly must mean the advancing of darkness. But it is established (in Babylonian Talmud Berakhot) that day continues until stars appear. The Gemara therefore concluded that when "God called the light" in Genesis 1:5, God summoned the light and appointed it for duty by day, and similarly God summoned the darkness and appointed it for duty by night.
Interpretations related to creation of the firmament and earth from the 1860
Die Bibel in Bildern) Rav Judah taught that when God created the world, it went on expanding like two unraveling balls of thread, until God rebuked it and brought it to a standstill, as Job 26:21 says, "The pillars of heaven were trembling, but they became astonished at His rebuke." Similarly, Resh Lakish taught that the words "I am God Almighty" (,
El Shaddai) in Genesis 35:11 mean, "I am He Who said to the world: 'Enough!'" (,
Dai). Resh Lakish taught that when God created the sea, it went on expanding, until God rebuked it and caused it to dry up, as
Nahum 1:4 says, "He rebukes the sea and makes it dry, and dries up all the rivers." Rabbi Jose bar Ḥanina taught that "heaven" (,
shamayim) means "there is water" (
sham mayim). A baraita taught that it means "fire and water" (''eish u'mayim''), teaching that God brought fire and water together and mixed them to make the firmament. Rabbi Judah ben Pazi noted that a similar word appears in both Genesis 1:6—where ,
rakiya is translated as "firmament"—and Exodus 39:3—where ,
vayraku is translated as "and they flattened." He thus deduced from the usage in Exodus 39:3 that Genesis 1:6 taught that on the second day of creation, God spread the heavens flat like a cloth. Or Rabbi Judah the son of Rabbi Simon deduced from Exodus 39:3 that Genesis 1:6 meant "let a lining be made for the firmament." A baraita taught that the upper waters created in Genesis 1:6–7 remain suspended by Divine command, and their fruit is the rainwater, and thus Psalm 104:13 says: "The earth is full of the fruit of Your works." This view accords with that of
Rabbi Joshua.
Rabbi Eliezer, however, interpreted Psalm 104:13 to refer to other handiwork of God. Rabbi Eliezer taught that on the day that God said in Genesis 1:9, "Let the waters be gathered together," God laid the foundation for the miracle of the splitting of the sea in
the Exodus from
Egypt. Rabbi Eliezer taught that on the day that God said in Genesis 1:9, "Let the waters be gathered together," the waters congealed, and God made them into twelve valleys, corresponding to the twelve tribes, and they were made into walls of water between each path, and the Israelites could see each other, and they saw God, walking before them, but they did not see the heels of God's feet, as Psalm 77:19 says, "Your way was in the sea, and Your paths in the great waters, and Your footsteps were not known."
Intercalation related interpretations The
Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer taught that God created the sun and the moon in Genesis 1:16 on the 28th of
Elul(right before start of the jewish new year). The entire Hebrew calendar—years, months, days, nights, seasons, and
intercalation—were before God, and God intercalated the years and delivered the calculations to Adam in the Garden of Eden, as Genesis 5:1 can be read, "This is the calculation for the generations of Adam." Adam handed on the tradition to Enoch, who was initiated in the principle of intercalation, as Genesis 5:22 says, "And Enoch walked with God." Enoch passed the principle of intercalation to Noah, who conveyed the tradition to Shem, who conveyed it to
Abraham, who conveyed it to
Isaac, who conveyed it to
Jacob, who conveyed it to
Joseph and his brothers. When Joseph and his brothers died, the Israelites ceased to intercalate, as Exodus 1:6 reports, "And Joseph died, and all his brethren, and all that generation." God then revealed the principles of the Hebrew calendar to Moses and Aaron in Egypt, as Exodus 12:1–2 reports, "And the Lord spoke to Moses and Aaron in the land of Egypt saying, 'This month shall be to you the beginning of months.'" The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer deduced from the word "saying" in Exodus 12:1 that God said to Moses and Aaron that until then, the principle of intercalation had been with God, but from then on it was their right to intercalate the year. Thus, the Israelites intercalated the year and will until
Elijah returns to herald in the
Messianic Age.
Interpretations related to sea monsters from his 1805 set of
Illustrations of the Book of Job) Rabbi Joḥanan taught that the words "and God created the great sea-monsters" in Genesis 1:21 referred to
Leviathan the slant serpent and Leviathan the tortuous serpent, also referred to in Isaiah 27:1. Rav Judah taught in the name of Rav that God created all living things in this world male and female, including Leviathan the slant serpent and Leviathan the tortuous serpent. Had they mated with one another, they would have destroyed the world, so God castrated the male and killed the female, preserving it in salt for the righteous in the world to come, as reported in Isaiah 27:1 when it says: "And he will slay the dragon that is in the sea." Similarly, God also created male and female the "
Behemoth upon a thousand hills" referred to in Psalm 50:10. Had they mated, they also would have destroyed the world, so God castrated the male and cooled the female and preserved it for the righteous for the world to come. Rav Judah taught further in the name of Rav that when God wanted to create the world, God told the
angel of the sea to open the angel's mouth and swallow all the waters of the world. When the angel protested, God struck the angel dead, as reported in Job 26:12, when it says: "He stirs up the sea with his power and by his understanding he smites through
Rahab."
Rabbi Isaac deduced from this that the name of the angel of the sea was Rahab, and had the waters not covered Rahab, no creature could have stood the smell.
Humanity related interpretations Rabbi Joḥanan explained that Genesis 1:26 uses the plural pronoun when God says, "Let us make man," to teach that God does nothing without consulting God's Heavenly Court of angels (thus instructing us in the proper conduct of humility among subordinates). Noting that Genesis 1:26 uses the plural pronoun when God says, "Let us make man," the heretics asked Rabbi
Simlai how many deities created the world. Rabbi Simlai replied that wherever one finds a point apparently supporting the heretics, one finds the refutation nearby in the text. Thus Genesis 1:26 says, "Let us make man" (using the plural pronoun), but then Genesis 1:27 says, "And God created" (using the singular pronoun). When the heretics had departed, Rabbi Simlai's disciples told him that they thought that he had dismissed the heretics with a mere makeshift and asked him for the real answer. Rabbi Simlai then told his disciples that in the first instance, God created Adam from dust and Eve from Adam, but thereafter God would create humans (in the words of Genesis 1:26) "in Our image, after Our likeness," neither man without woman nor woman without man, and neither of them without the
Shechinah (the presence of God). A baraita taught that when King Ptolemy brought together 72 elders, placed them in 72 separate rooms without telling them why, and directed each of them to translate the Torah, God prompted each one of them and they all conceived the same idea and wrote for Genesis 1:26, "
I shall make man in image and likeness" (instead of "Let
us make," to prevent readers from reading into the text multiple creating powers). The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer told that God spoke to the Torah the words of Genesis 1:26, "Let us make man in our image, after our likeness." The Torah answered that the man whom God sought to create would be limited in days and full of anger and would come into the power of sin. Unless God would be long-suffering with him, the Torah continued, it would be well for man not to come into the world. God asked the Torah whether it was for nothing that God is called "slow to anger" and "abounding in love." God then set about making man. Rabbi Eleazar read the words "since the day that God created man upon the earth and ask from the one side of heaven" in Deuteronomy 4:32 to read, "from the day that God created Adam on earth and to the end of heaven." Thus, Rabbi Eleazar read Deuteronomy 4:32 to intimate that when God created Adam in Genesis 1:26–27, Adam extended from the earth to the sky. But as soon as Adam sinned, God placed God's hand upon Adam and diminished him, as Psalm 139:5 says: "You have fashioned me after and before and laid Your hand upon me." Similarly, Rav Judah in the name of Rav taught that when God created Adam in Genesis 1:26–27, Adam extended from one end of the world to the other, reading Deuteronomy 4:32 to read, "Since the day that God created man upon the earth, and from one end of heaven to the other." (And Rav Judah in the name of Rav also taught that as soon as Adam sinned, God placed God's hand upon Adam and diminished him.) The Gemara reconciled the interpretations of Rabbi Eleazar and Rav Judah in the name of Rav by concluding that the distance from the earth to the sky must equal the distance from one end of heaven to the other.
Liturgy interpretations The Mishnah taught that in
Second Temple times, Jews would acknowledge God's creation and read the verses of the creation story when representatives of the people would assemble (in watches or ''ma'amadot'') to participate in sacrifices made in
Jerusalem on their behalf. The people of the delegation would fast four days during the week that they assembled. On the first day (Sunday), they would read Genesis 1:1–8 On the second day, they would read Genesis 1:9–13. On the third day, they would read Genesis 1:14–19. On the fourth day, they would read Genesis 1:20–23. On the fifth day, they would read Genesis 1:24–31. And on the sixth day, they would read Genesis 2:1–2:3.
Rabbi Ammi taught that if had not been for the worship of these delegations, heaven and earth would not be firmly established, reading Jeremiah 33:25 to say, "If it were not for My covenant [observed] day and night, I would not have established the statutes of heaven and earth." And Rabbi Ammi cited Genesis 15:8–9 to show that when Abraham asked God how Abraham would know that his descendants would inherit the Land notwithstanding their sins, God replied by calling on Abraham to sacrifice several animals. Rabbi Ammi then reported that Abraham asked God what would happen in times to come when there would be no Temple at which to offer sacrifices. Rabbi Ammi reported that God replied to Abraham that whenever Abraham's descendants will read the sections of the Torah dealing with the sacrifices, God will account it as if they had brought the offerings and forgive all their sins.
(woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld from the 1860 Die Bibel in Bildern'')
Human temperament interpretations It was recorded in Rabbi
Joshua ben Levi's notebook that a person born on the first day of the week (Sunday) will lack one thing. Regarding the meaning of the one thing that he or she will lack, the Gemara explained that the person will be either completely virtuous (so they will lack evil) or completely wicked (lack the goodness of the heart), because on that day (in Genesis 1:3–5) God created the extremes of light and darkness. A person born on the second day of the week (Monday) will be bad-tempered, because on that day (in Genesis 1:6–7) God divided the waters (and similarly division will exist between this person and others). A person born on the third day of the week (Tuesday) will be wealthy and promiscuous, because on that day (in Genesis 1:11) God created fast-growing herbs. A person born on the fourth day of the week (Wednesday) will be bright, because on that day (in Genesis 1:16–17) God set the luminaries in the sky. A person born on the fifth day of the week (Thursday) will practice kindness, because on that day (in Genesis 1:21) God created the fish and birds (who find their sustenance through God's kindness). A person born on the eve of the Sabbath (Friday evening) will be a seeker.
Rav Naḥman bar Isaac explained that this person would be a seeker after
Mitzvot(good deeds) since the eve of the sabbath is solely for the preparation of the Sabbath. A person born on the Sabbath (Saturday) will die on the Sabbath, because they had to desecrate the great day of the Sabbath on that person's account to attend to the birth. And Rava son of
Rav Shila observed that this person shall be called a great and holy person.
Genesis chapter 2 The finished heaven and earth Rava (or some say Rabbi Joshua ben Levi) taught that a person who prays on the eve of the Sabbath must recite Genesis 2:1–3, "And the heaven and the earth were finished ..." (, ''va-yachulu hashamayim v'haaretz ...
), for Rav Hamnuna taught that whoever prays on the eve of the Sabbath and recites "and the heaven and the earth were finished" the Writ treats as though a partner with God in the Creation, for one may read va-yachulu
()—"and they were finished"—as va-yekallu''—"and they finished."
Rav Ḥisda said in
Mar Ukba's name that when one prays on the eve of the Sabbath and recites "and the heaven and the earth were finished," two ministering angels place their hands on the head of the person praying and say (in the words of Isaiah 6:7), "Your iniquity is taken away, and your sin purged."
Rabbi Simeon noted that nearly everywhere, Scripture gives precedence to the creation of heaven over earth. But Genesis 2:4 says, "the day that the Lord God made earth and heaven" (listing earth before heaven). Rabbi Simeon concluded that Genesis 2:4 thus teaches that the earth is equivalent to heaven.
The Sabbath as completion of the world A baraita taught that when King Ptolemy brought together 72 elders, placed them in 72 separate rooms without telling them why, and directed each of them to translate the Torah, God prompted each one of them and they all conceived the same idea and wrote for Genesis 2:2, "And he finished on the sixth day, and rested on the seventh day" (instead of "and He finished on the seventh day," to prevent readers from reading that God worked on the Sabbath).
Sabbath as inheritance and observance even by god ) Reading Genesis 2:2, "And on the seventh day God finished the work," the Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer taught that God created seven dedications (for the creation of each of the seven days). God expressed six of them and reserved one for future generations. Thus, when God created the first day and finished all God's work on it, God dedicated it, as Genesis 1:5 says, "And it was evening, and it was morning, one day." When God created the second day and finished all God's work in it, God dedicated it, as Genesis 1:8 says, "And it was evening, and it was morning, a second day." Similar language appears through the six days of creation. God created the seventh day, but not for work, because Genesis does not say in connection the seventh day, "And it was evening, and it was morning." That is because God reserved the dedication of the seventh day for the generations to come, as
Zechariah 14:7 says, speaking of the Sabbath, "And there shall be one day which is known to the Lord; not day, and not night." The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer compared this to a man who had precious utensils that he wanted to leave as an inheritance to his son. The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer taught that likewise, God wanted to give the day of blessing and holiness that was before God as an inheritance to Israel. For when the Israelites left Egypt, before God gave them the Torah, God gave them the Sabbath as an inheritance (as reported in Exodus 16:23). Before God gave Israel the Torah, they kept two Sabbaths, as Nehemiah 9:14 says first, "And You made known to them Your holy Sabbath." And only afterwards did God give them the Torah, as Nehemiah 9:14 says as it continues, "And commanded them commandments, and statutes, and Torah by the hand of Moses, Your servant." God observed and sanctified the Sabbath, and Israel is obliged only to observe and sanctify the Sabbath. For when God gave the Israelites
manna, all through the 40 years in the wilderness, God gave it during the six days in which God had created the world, Sunday through Friday, but on the Sabbath, God did not give them manna. Of course, God had power enough to give them manna every day. But the Sabbath was before God, so God gave the Israelites bread for two days on Friday, as Exodus 16:29 says, "See, for the Lord has given you the Sabbath, therefore he gives you on the sixth day the bread of two days." When the people saw that God observed the Sabbath, they also rested, as Exodus 16:30 says, "So the people rested on the seventh day."
Regarding the multiplied days Reading Genesis 2:3, "And God blessed the seventh day, and hallowed it," the Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer taught that God
blessed and hallowed the Sabbath day, and Israel is bound only to
keep and to hallow the Sabbath day. Hence the Sages said that those who says the benediction and sanctification over the wine on Friday evenings will have their days increased in this world, and in the world to come. For Proverbs 9:11 says, "For by me your days shall be multiplied," signifying in this world. And Proverbs 9:11 continues, "and the years of your life shall be increased" signifying in the world to come.
Similarity of creation and sabbath mandates A midrash deduced from similarities in the language of the creation of humanity and the Sabbath commandment that God gave Adam the precept of the Sabbath. Reading the report of God’s creating Adam in Genesis 2:15, "And God put him (,
vayanihehu) into the Garden of Eden," the midrash taught that "And God put him (,
vayanihehu)" means that God gave Adam the precept of the Sabbath, for the Sabbath commandment uses a similar word in Exodus 20:11, "And rested (,
vayanach) on the seventh day." Genesis 2:15 continues, "to till it (, ''le'avedah
)," and the Sabbath commandment uses a similar word in Exodus 20:9, "Six days shall you labor (, ta’avod
)." And Genesis 2:15 continues, "And to keep it (, ule-shamerah
)," and the Sabbath commandment uses a similar word in Deuteronomy 5:12, "Keep (, shamor'') the Sabbath day."
The meaning of the initial creation of man as one and theories of ingredients for Adam The Mishnah taught that God created humanity from one person in Genesis 2:7 to teach that Providence considers one who destroys a single person as one who has destroyed an entire world, and Providence considers one who saves a single person as one who has saved an entire world. And God created humanity from one person for the sake of peace, so that none can say that their ancestry is greater than another's. And God created humanity from one person so that heretics cannot say that there are many gods who created several human souls. And God created humanity from one person to demonstrate God's greatness, for people stamp out many coins with one coin press and they all look alike, but God stamped each person with the seal of Adam, and not one of them is like another. Therefore, every person is obliged to say, "For my sake the world was created."
Rabbi Meir used to say that the dust of the first man (from which Genesis 2:7 reports God made Adam) was gathered from all parts of the earth, for Psalm 139:16 says of God, "Your eyes did see my unformed substance," and 2 Chronicles 16:9 says, "The eyes of the Lord run to and fro through the whole earth." Similarly, the Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer told that when God began to create the first person, God began to collect dust from the four corners of the world—red, black, white, and yellow. Explaining why God gathered the first person's dust from the four corners of the world, God said that if a person should travel from the east to the west, or from the west to the east, and the time should come for the person to depart from the world, then the earth would not be able to tell the person that the dust of the person's body was not of the earth there, and that the person needed to return to the place from which the person had been created. Thus, in every place where a person comes or goes, should the person approach the time to die, in that place is the dust of the person's body, and there the person's body will return to the dust, as Genesis 3:19 says, "For dust you are, and to dust shall you return."
Adam, duality in one body The Gemara taught that all agree that there was only one formation of humankind (not a separate creation of man and woman). Rav Judah, however, noted an apparent contradiction: Genesis 1:27 says, "And God created man in [God's] own image" (in the singular), while Genesis 5:2 says, "Male and female created He them" (in the plural). Rav Judah reconciled the apparent contradiction by concluding that in the beginning God intended to create two human beings, and in the end, God created only one human being. on the
Orvieto Cathedral) Rav Naḥman bar Rav Ḥisda expounded on the words, "Then the Lord God formed (,
wa-yitzer) man," in Genesis 2:7. Rav Naḥman bar Rav Ḥisda taught that the word וַיִּיצֶר,
wa-yitzer is written with two
yuds () to show that God created people with two inclinations (
yetzerim), one good and one evil. Rav Naḥman bar Isaac demurred, arguing that according to this logic, animals, of which Genesis 2:19 writes ,
wa-yitzer with a single
yud, should have no evil inclination (
yetzer hara), but we see that they injure, bite, and kick, plainly evincing an evil inclination. Rather, Rabbi Simeon ben Pazzi explained the two
yuds by saying, "Woe is me because of my Creator (
yotzri), woe is me because of my evil inclination (
yitzri)!" Rabbi Simeon ben Pazzi thus indicated that the two
yuds indicate the human condition, where God punishes us for giving in to our evil inclination, but our evil inclination tempts us when we try to resist. Alternatively, Rabbi Jeremiah ben Eleazar explained that the two
yuds reflect that God created two countenances in the first man, one man and one woman, back to back, as Psalm 139:5 says, "Behind and before have You formed me." woodcut)
The importance of Adam not bring alone in the
Sistine Chapel) Reading God's observation in Genesis 2:18 that "it is not good that the man should be alone," a midrash taught that a man without a wife dwells without good, without help, without joy, without blessing, and without atonement. Without good, as Genesis 2:18 says that "it is
not good that the man should be alone." Without help, as in Genesis 2:18, God says, "I will make him a
help meet for him." Without joy, as Deuteronomy 14:26 says, "And you shall rejoice, you
and your household" (implying that one can rejoice only when there is a "household" with whom to rejoice). Without a blessing, as Ezekiel 44:30 can be read, "To cause a blessing to rest on you
for the sake of your house" (that is, for the sake of one's wife). Without atonement, as Leviticus 16:11 says, "And he shall make atonement for himself,
and for his house" (implying that one can make complete atonement only with a household). Rabbi Simeon said in the name of Rabbi Joshua ben Levi, without peace too, as
1 Samuel 25:6 says, "And peace be to your house." Rabbi Joshua of Siknin said in the name of Rabbi Levi, without life too, as
Ecclesiastes 9:9 says, "Enjoy life with the wife whom you love." Rabbi Hiyya ben Gomdi said, also incomplete, as Genesis 5:2 says, "male and female created He them, and blessed them, and called their name Adam," that is, "man" (and thus only together are they "man"). Some say a man without a wife even impairs the Divine likeness, as Genesis 9:6 says, "For in the image of God made God man," and immediately thereafter Genesis 9:7 says, "And you, be fruitful, and multiply (implying that the former is impaired if one does not fulfill the latter).
The material that was used to create eve Rav and Samuel offered different explanations of the words in Genesis 2:22, "And the rib which the Lord God had taken from man made He a woman." One said that this "rib" was a face, the other that it was a tail. In support of the one who said it was a face, Psalm 139:5 says, "Behind and before have You formed me." The one who said it was a tail explained the words, "Behind and before have You formed me," as Rabbi Ammi said, that humankind was "behind," that is, later, in the work of creation, and "before" in punishment. The Gemara conceded that humankind was last in the work of creation, for God created humankind on the eve of the Sabbath. But if when saying that humankind was first for punishment, one means the punishment in connection with the serpent, Rabbi taught that, in conferring honor the Bible commences with the greatest, in cursing with the least important. Thus, in cursing, God began with the least, cursing first the serpent, then the people. The punishment of the Flood must therefore be meant, as Genesis 7:23 says, "And He blotted out every living substance which was upon the face of the ground, both man and cattle," starting with the people. In support of the one who said that Eve was created from a face, in Genesis 2:7, the word ,
wa-yitzer is written with two
yuds. But the one who said Eve was created from a tail explained the word ,
wa-yitzer as Rabbi Simeon ben Pazzi said, "Woe is me because of my Creator (
yotzri), woe is me because of my evil inclination (
yitzri)!" In support of the one who said that Eve was created from a face, Genesis 5:2 says, "male and female God created them." But the one who said Eve was created from a tail explained the words, "male and female created He them," as Rabbi
Abbahu explained when he contrasted the words, "male and female created He them," in Genesis 5:2 with the words, "in the image of God made God man," in Genesis 9:6. Rabbi Abbahu reconciled these statements by teaching that at first God intended to create two, but in the end created only one. In support of the one who said that Eve was created from a face, Genesis 2:22 says, "He closed up the place with flesh instead thereof." But the one who said Eve was created from a tail explained the words, "He closed up the place with flesh instead thereof," as Rabbi Jeremiah (or as some say Rav Zebid, or others say Rav Naḥman bar Isaac) said, that these words applied only to the place where God made the cut. In support of the one who said that Eve was created from a tail, Genesis 2:22 says, "God built." But the one who said that Eve was created from a face explained the words "God built" as explained by Rabbi Simeon ben Menasia, who interpreted the words, "and the Lord built the rib," to teach that God braided Eve's hair and brought her to Adam, for in the seacoast towns braiding (''keli'ata
) is called building (binyata''). Alternatively, Rav Ḥisda said (or some say it was taught in a baraita) that the words, "and the Lord built the rib," teach that God built Eve after the fashion of a storehouse, narrow at the top and broad at the bottom to hold the produce safely. So Rav Ḥisda taught that a woman is narrower above and broader below so as better to carry children.
The context of god giving eve to adam A baraita taught that if an orphan applied to the community for assistance to marry, the community must rent a house, supply a bed and necessary household furnishings, and put on the wedding, as Deuteronomy 15:8 says, "sufficient for his need, whatever is lacking for him." The Rabbis interpreted the words "sufficient for his need" to refer to the house, "whatever is lacking" to refer to a bed and a table, and "for him (,
lo)" to refer to a wife, as Genesis 2:18 uses the same term, "for him (,
lo)," to refer to Adam's wife, whom Genesis 2:18 calls "a helpmate
for him." Rabbi Elazar read the words of Genesis 2:18, "a helpmate for him (,
kenegdo)" to mean that if one is worthy, his wife helps him; if he is not worthy, she is against him. According to the Gemara, a
Roman emperor told Rabban
Gamaliel that the God of Genesis was a thief, as Genesis 2:21 says, "And the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall upon the man and he slept; and [God] took one of his sides and closed up the place with flesh instead." The emperor's daughter told Rabban Gamliel that she would answer the emperor. She then asked her father for an official to avenge a wrong committed against her, as bandits had come the previous night and taken a silver jug and left a gold jug in its place. The emperor replied that if that were so, he would want bandits like those to come every night. She concluded that it was just as good for Adam that God took his side and gave him the woman in its place. Rabbi Jeremiah ben Eleazar interpreted the words, "and God brought her to the man," in Genesis 2:22 to teach that God acted as best man to Adam, teaching that a man of eminence should not think it amiss to act as best man for a lesser man.
Using Genesis 2 for interpretations of other chapters The Tosefta taught that the generation of the Flood acted arrogantly before God on account of the good that God lavished on them, in part in Genesis 2:6. So (in the words of Job 21:14–15) "they said to God: 'Depart from us; for we desire not the knowledge of Your ways. What is the Almighty, that we should serve Him? And what profit should we have if we pray unto Him?'" They scoffed that they needed God for only a few drops of rain, and they deluded themselves that they had rivers and wells that were more than enough for them, and as Genesis 2:6 reports, "there rose up a mist from the earth." God noted that they took excess pride based upon the goodness that God lavished on them, so God replied that with that same goodness God would punish them. And thus Genesis 6:17 reports, "And I, behold, I do bring the flood of waters upon the earth."
Rabbi José taught that Isaac observed three years of mourning for his mother
Sarah. After three years he married
Rebekah and forgot the mourning for his mother. Hence Rabbi José taught that until a man marries a wife, his love centers on his parents. When he marries a wife, he bestows his love upon his wife, as Genesis 2:24 says, "Therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother, and he shall cleave unto his wife." )
Genesis chapter 3 Interpretation related to the tree of good and evil and the serpent Hezekiah noted that in Genesis 3:3, Eve added to God's words by telling the serpent that she was not even permitted to touch the tree. Hezekiah deduced from this that one who adds to God's words in fact subtracts from them. A midrash explained that because the serpent was the first to speak slander in Genesis 3:4–5, God punished the Israelites by means of serpents in Numbers 21:6 when they spoke slander. God cursed the serpent, but the Israelites did not learn a lesson from the serpent's fate and nonetheless spoke slander. God therefore sent the serpent, who was the first to introduce slander, to punish those who spoke slander. Judah ben Padiah noted Adam's frailty, for he could not remain loyal even for a single hour to God's charge that he not eat from the tree of knowledge of good and evil, yet in accordance with Leviticus 19:23, Adam's descendants the Israelites waited three years for the fruits of a tree. Rabbi Samuel bar Naḥman said in
Rabbi Jonathan's name that the story of the serpent in Genesis 3 teaches that one should not plead on behalf of one who instigates
idolatry. For Rabbi Simlai taught that the serpent had many pleas that it could have advanced, but it did not do so. And God did not plead on the serpent's behalf, because it offered no plea itself. The Gemara taught that the serpent could have argued that when the words of the teacher and the pupil are contradictory, one should surely obey the teacher's (and so Eve should have obeyed God's command). Rabbi Ammi taught that there is no death without sin, as Ezekiel 18:20 says, "The soul that sins ... shall die." The Gemara reported an objection based on the following baraita: The ministering angels asked God why God imposed the death penalty on Adam (in Genesis 3). God answered that God gave Adam an easy command, and he violated it. The angels objected that Moses and Aaron fulfilled the whole Torah, but they died. God replied (in the words of Ecclesiastes 9:2), "There is one event [death] to the righteous and to the wicked; to the good and to the clean and to the unclean; ... as is the good, so is the sinner." The Gemara concluded that the baraita refuted Rabbi Ammi, and there is indeed death without sin and suffering without iniquity. ) Rabbi Joshua ben Levi taught that when in Genesis 3:18, God told Adam, "Thorns also and thistles shall it bring forth to you," Adam began to cry and pleaded before God that he not be forced to eat out of the same trough with his donkey. But as soon as God told Adam in Genesis 3:19, "In the sweat of your brow shall you eat bread," Adam's mind was set at ease. Rabbi
Simeon ben Lakish taught that humanity is fortunate that we did not remain subject to the first decree.
Abaye (or others say Simeon ben Lakish) observed that we are still not altogether removed from the benefits of the first decree, as we eat herbs of the field (which come forth without effort).
How one should emulate god Rabbi Ḥama son of Rabbi Ḥanina taught that Genesis 3:21 demonstrates one of God's attributes that humans should emulate. Rabbi Ḥama asked what Deuteronomy 13:5 means in the text, "You shall walk after the Lord your God." How can a human being walk after God, when Deuteronomy 4:24 says, "[T]he Lord your God is a devouring fire"? Rabbi Ḥama explained that the command to walk after God means to walk after the attributes of God. As God clothes the naked—for Genesis 3:21 says, "And the Lord God made for Adam and for his wife coats of skin and clothed them"—so should we also clothe the naked. God visited the sick—for Genesis 18:1 says, "And the Lord appeared to him by the oaks of
Mamre" (after Abraham was circumcised in Genesis 17:26)—so should we also visit the sick. God comforted mourners—for Genesis 25:11 says, "And it came to pass after the death of Abraham, that God blessed Isaac his son"—so should we also comfort mourners. God buried the dead—for Deuteronomy 34:6 says, "And He buried him in the valley"—so should we also bury the dead. Similarly, the
Sifre on Deuteronomy 11:22 taught that to walk in God's ways means to be (in the words of Exodus 34:6) "merciful and gracious". '' (illustration from a Bible card published 1906 by the Providence Lithograph Company)
Genesis chapter 4 Translation of " lifted up" in context A baraita taught that
Issi ben Judah said that there are five verses in the Torah whose
grammatical construction cannot be decided, because each verse contains a phrase which a reader can link to the clause either before it or after it. Among these five is the phrase "lifted up" (,
seit) in Genesis 4:7. In the
JPS translation, God says to Cain: :
If thou doest well, shall it not be lifted up? and if thou doest not well, sin coucheth at the door; and unto thee is its desire, but thou mayest rule over it. A reader could treat this as meaning: "If you do well, good! But you must bear the sin, if you do not do well", linking "lifting up" with the remembrance of Cain's sin, or, in its usual interpretation: "If you do well, there will be forgiving, or 'lifting up of face'. And if you do not do well, sin couches at the door." In the first interpretation, the reader attaches the term "lifted up" to the following clause. Taking the second approach, the reader attaches the term "lifted up" to the preceding clause.
Interpretations of Cain and Abel with yetzer hara The Rabbis read God's admonition to Cain in Genesis 4:7 to describe the conflict that one has with one's Evil Inclination (
yetzer hara). The Rabbis taught in a baraita that Deuteronomy 11:18 says of the Torah, "So you fix (,
ve-samtem) these My words in your heart and in your soul." The Rabbis taught that one should read the word
samtem rather as
sam tam (meaning "a perfect remedy"). The Rabbis thus compared the Torah to a perfect remedy. The Rabbis compared this to a man who struck his son a strong blow, and then put a compress on the son's wound, telling his son that so long as the compress was on his wound, he could eat and drink at will, and bathe in hot or cold water, without fear. But if the son removed the compress, his skin would break out in sores. Even so, did God tell Israel that God created the Evil Inclination, but also created the Torah as its antidote. God told Israel that if they occupied themselves with the Torah, they would not be delivered into the hand of the Evil Inclination, as Genesis 4:7 says: "If you do well, shall you not be exalted?" But if Israel did not occupy themselves with the Torah, they would be delivered into the hand of the Evil Inclination, as Genesis 4:7 says: "sin couches at the door." Moreover, the Rabbis taught, the Evil Inclination is altogether preoccupied to make people sin, as Genesis 4:7 says: "and to you shall be his desire." Yet if one wishes, one can rule over the Evil Inclination, as Genesis 4:7 says: "and you shall rule over him." A baraita taught that the Evil Inclination is hard to bear, since even God its Creator called it evil, as in Genesis 8:21, God says, "the desire of man's heart is evil from his youth." Rav Isaac taught that a person's Evil Inclination renews itself against that person daily, as Genesis 6:5 says, "Every imagination of the thoughts of his heart was only evil
every day." And Rabbi Simeon ben Levi (or others say Rabbi Simeon ben Lakish) taught that a person's Evil Inclination gathers strength against that person daily and seeks to slay that person, as Psalm 37:32 says, "The wicked watches the righteous, and seeks to slay him." And if God were not to help a person, one would not be able to prevail against one's Evil Inclination, for as Psalm 37:33 says, "The Lord will not leave him in his hand." Rav taught that the evil inclination resembles a fly, which dwells between the two entrances of the heart, as Ecclesiastes 10:1 says, "Dead flies make the ointment of the perfumers fetid and putrid." But Samuel said that the evil inclination is a like a kind of wheat (,
chitah), as Genesis 4:7 says, "Sin (,
chatat) couches at the door."
Regarding the strife of Cain and Abel Reading the words of Genesis 4:8, "And Cain spoke to Abel his brother", a midrash imagined the subject of their discussion. The midrash taught that they divided the world between them. The first took the movables and the second took the land. The second told the first that he was standing on the second's land. The first retorted that the second was wearing the first's clothes. The first told the second to strip off his clothes. The second retorted that the first should fly off his ground. Out of this quarrel, as Genesis 4:8 reports, "Cain rose up against his brother Abel." Rabbi Joshua of Siknin said in Rabbi Levi's name, however, that Cain and Abel quarreled because one said that the Temple would have to be built in his area, while the other claimed that it would have to be built in his. For Genesis 4:8 says, "And it came to pass, when they were in the field," and "field" refers to the Temple, as
Micah 3:12 equates the two when it says, "Sion (that is, the Temple) shall be plowed as a field." Out of this argument (in the words of Genesis 4:8), "Cain rose up against Abel his brother, and slew him." Judah the son of Rabbi, however, said that their quarrel was about the first Eve. But Rabbi Aibu said that the first Eve had by then returned to dust.
Rav Huna taught that Cain and Abel quarreled over an additional twin daughter who was born with Abel, whom each brother claimed for his own. Cain said that he would have her, because he was the firstborn, while Abel maintained that he would have to have her, because she was born with him. Reading the words of Genesis 4:8, "And Cain rose up against his brother Abel," Rabbi Joḥanan taught that Abel was stronger than Cain, for the expression "rose up" implies that Cain lay beneath Abel (as if they had already fought and Abel had thrown Cain down). From the ground, Cain asked Abel what he would tell their father if Abel killed him. At this, Abel was filled with pity for Cain and relented, and immediately Cain rose against Abel and killed him. Out of that incident was born the proverb, "Do not do good to an evil man, then evil will not befall you." The Mishnah taught that court officials admonished witnesses testifying in capital cases to beware that the blood of the defendant and all the defendant's offspring to the end of the world depended on the witness, for Genesis 4:10 says concerning Cain that "the bloods of your brother cry ... from the ground," using the plural "bloods" to signify the victim's blood and the blood of the victim's offspring. And thus, Providence considers one who destroys a single person as one who has destroyed an entire world, and Providence considers one who saves a single person as one who has saved an entire world. The Mishnah reported that another interpretation of "brother's bloods" was that Abel's blood spattered in several places on the surrounding trees and stones. Rabbi Simeon bar Yoḥai compared Cain and Abel to two gladiators fighting before a king. Had the king wished, he could have separated them, but he did not do so. One overcame the other and killed him. Before he died, the victim cried out to the king for help. Rabbi Simeon thus noted that changing one letter in Genesis 4:10 would cause God's statement to read, "The voice of your brother's blood cries out
against Me." Rabbi Simeon said that it is difficult to say this thing, and the mouth cannot utter it plainly (but by God's inaction, God was involved in Abel's murder).
Miscellaneous interpretations , the Teacher, with Her Half-brother
Jubal, a Father of Music'' (14th-century marble bas relief at
Orvieto Cathedral) Reading in Genesis 7:4 that God said, "every living substance (,
yekum) that I have made will I blot out," Rabbi Abin taught that this included the one who rose up (,
yakam) against his brother—Cain. Rabbi Levi said in the name of Resh Lakish that God kept Cain's judgment in suspense until the Flood and then God swept Cain away. And thus, Rabbi Levi read Genesis 7:23 to say, "And He blotted out every one that had arisen." Rabbi Abba bar Kahana said that
Naamah, the sister of Tubal-cain, mentioned in Genesis 4:22, was Noah's wife. She was called Naamah, because her deeds were pleasing (''ne'imim
). But the Rabbis said that Naamah was a woman of a different stamp, for her name denotes that she sang (man'emet'') to the
timbrel in honor of idolatry.
Genesis chapter 5 Interpretations related to generations Rabbi Akiva said that the words of Leviticus 19:18, "You shall love your neighbor as yourself", are the great general rule of the Torah. But
Ben Azzai said that the words of Genesis 5:1, "This is the book of the generations of Adam. In the day that God created humankind, it was in the likeness of God", are an even greater general rule of the Torah. The Mishnah taught that Genesis 5:1–31 enumerated ten generations from Adam to Noah to demonstrate how patient God is, for according to the Mishnah, all those generations provoked God, until God brought on them the waters of the flood.
Interpretations related to what happened to Adam during creation Rabbi Tanḥuma taught in Rabbi Banayah's name, and Rabbi Berekiah taught in Rabbi Eleazar's name, that God created Adam a shapeless mass, and Adam lay stretching from one end of the world to the other, as Psalm 139:16 says, "Your eyes did see my shapeless mass." Rabbi Judah ben Rabbi Simon taught that while Adam lay a shapeless mass before God, God showed Adam every succeeding generation of mankind and its Sages, judges, scribes, interpreters, and leaders. God told Adam, in the words of Psalm 139:16, "Your eyes did see unformed substance," Adam's potential descendants, and God told Adam that all of those descendants had already been written in the book of Adam, as Genesis 5:1 says: "This is the book of the generations of Adam."
Reading of Genesis 5:2 Rabbi Eleazar read the words of Genesis 5:2, "male and female created He them, and called their name 'man,'" and deduced that one cannot be a complete "man" unless one is married. A baraita taught that when King Ptolemy brought together 72 elders, placed them in 72 separate rooms without telling them why, and directed each of them to translate the Torah, God prompted each one of them and they all conceived the same idea and wrote for Genesis 5:2, "Male and female He created him" (instead of "created them," to prevent readers from reading that God created more than one person at the start). In contrast, the Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer read Genesis 5:3, "And Adam lived 130 years and begot a son in his own likeness, after his own image," to imply that Cain was not of Adam's seed, nor after his likeness, nor after his image. The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer taught that Adam did not beget in his own image until Seth was born, who was after his father Adam’s likeness and image. Thus, Rabbi Simeon taught that from Seth arose and were descended all the generations of the righteous. And from Cain arose and were descended all the generations of the wicked.
Interpretations related to Enoch(genesis 5:24) Noting that Genesis 5:24 says of Enoch not that he died, but that "God took him," some sectarians challenged Rabbi Abbahu, saying that they did not find that Enoch died, but that God "took" him, just as 2 Kings 2:1 says that God would "take" Elijah. Rabbi Abbahu reasoned that one could read the verb "took" in Genesis 5:24 just as "take" is used in Ezekiel 24:16, which says, "Behold, I take away from you the desire of your eyes," and there "take" definitely refers to death. Also interpreting Genesis 5:24, Rabbi Aibu taught that Enoch was a hypocrite, acting sometimes righteously and sometimes wickedly. So God removed Enoch while Enoch was acting righteously, judging Enoch on
Rosh Hashanah, when God judges the whole world.
Debate related to the reason or scope of the judgement Rav Huna said in Rav Joseph's name that the generation of the flood were not blotted out from the world until they composed nuptial songs (or others say, wrote marriage contracts) in honor of pederasty and bestiality. Rabbi Akiva deduced from the words of Genesis 7:23 that the generation of the Flood will have no portion in the world to come; he read the words "and every living substance was destroyed" to refer to this world and the words "that was on the face of the ground" to refer to the next world. Rabbi
Judah ben Bathyra deduced from the words "My spirit will not always enter into judgment with man" of Genesis 6:3 that God will neither revive nor judge the generation of the flood on Judgment Day. '' (watercolor circa 1896–1902 by James Tissot) Noting that Genesis 6:9 calls Noah "a man" (,
ish), a midrash taught that wherever Scripture employs the term "a man" (,
ish), it indicates a righteous man who warned his generation. The midrash taught that for 120 years (deduced from Genesis 6:3), Noah planted cedars and cut them down. When they would ask him what he was doing, he would reply that God had informed him that God was bringing a flood. Noah's contemporaries replied that if a flood did come, it would come only on Noah's father's house. Rabbi Abba taught that God said that one herald arose for God in the generation of the Flood—Noah. But they despised him and called him a contemptible old man. The School of
Rabbi Ishmael deduced from Genesis 6:8 that death was decreed against Noah too, but that he found favor in the eyes of God. '' (1827 painting by
Joseph-Désiré Court) The Tosefta taught that the flood killed people before animals (as seen in the order of Genesis 7:23), because man sinned first (as shown in Genesis 6:5). Rabbi Joḥanan taught that because the corruption of the generation of the flood was great, their punishment was also great. Genesis 6:5 characterizes their corruption as great (,
rabbah), saying, "And God saw that the wickedness of man was great in the earth." And Genesis 7:11 characterizes their punishment as great (,
rabbah), saying, "on the same day were all the fountains of the great deep broken up." Rabbi Joḥanan reported that three of those great thermal fountains remained open after the Flood—
the gulf of Gader, the hot-springs of
Tiberias, and the great well of
Biram. According to the midrash, elsewhere in the bible besides genesis 6, the heart speaks, sees, walks, falls, stands, rejoices, cries, is comforted, is troubled, becomes hardened, grows faint, fears, can be broken, becomes proud, rebels, invents, cavils, overflows, devises, desires, goes astray, lusts, is refreshed, can be stolen, is humbled, is enticed, errs, trembles, is awakened, loves, hates, envies, is searched, is rent, meditates, is like a fire, is like a stone, turns in repentance, becomes hot, dies, melts, takes in words, is susceptible to fear, gives thanks, covets, becomes hard, makes merry, acts deceitfully, speaks from out of itself, loves bribes, writes words, plans, receives commandments, acts with pride, makes arrangements, and aggrandizes itself. ==In medieval rabbinic interpretation==