Arab Belgian British '' by
Henry Singleton, c.1800.
Tipu,
Sultan of Mysore, an ally of
Napoleone Bonaparte, confronted
British East India Company forces at the
Siege of Srirangapatna, where he was killed. was the annexation of the
Boer Republics to the British Empire in 1902.
England England's imperialist ambitions can be seen as early as the 16th century as the
Tudor conquest of Ireland began in the 1530s. In 1599 the British
East India Company was established and was chartered by Queen Elizabeth in the following year. By the year 1670 Britain's imperialist ambitions were well off as she had colonies in Virginia, Massachusetts, Bermuda,
Honduras,
Antigua,
Barbados,
Jamaica and
Nova Scotia. Britain continued to expand by colonizing countries such as New Zealand and Australia, both of which were not empty land as they had their own locals and cultures. By the 1840s, the United Kingdom had adopted a highly successful policy of
free trade that gave it dominance in the trade of much of the world. After losing its first Empire to the Americans, Britain then turned its attention towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. Following the defeat of Napoleonic France in 1815, the United Kingdom enjoyed a century of almost unchallenged dominance and expanded its imperial holdings around the globe.
Unchallenged at sea, British dominance was later described as
Pax Britannica ("British Peace"), a period of relative peace in Europe and the world (1815–1914) during which the British Empire became the global
hegemon and adopted the role of global policeman. However, this peace was mostly a perceived one from Europe, and the period was still an almost uninterrupted series of colonial wars and disputes. The
British Conquest of India, its intervention against
Mehemet Ali, the
Anglo-Burmese Wars, the
Crimean War, the
Opium Wars and the
Scramble for Africa to name the most notable conflicts mobilised ample military means to press Britain's lead in the global conquest Europe led across the century. In the early 19th century, the
Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain; by the time of
the Great Exhibition in 1851 the country was described as the "workshop of the world". The British Empire expanded to include
India, large
parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, British dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively
controlled the economies of many regions, such as Asia and Latin America. Domestically, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies and a gradual widening of the voting franchise. During this century, the population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, causing significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the
Conservative Party under
Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, and elsewhere. Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. A resurgence came in the late 19th century with the
Scramble for Africa and major additions in Asia and the Middle East. The British spirit of imperialism was expressed by
Joseph Chamberlain and
Lord Rosebury, and implemented in Africa by
Cecil Rhodes. The pseudo-sciences of Social Darwinism and theories of race formed an ideological underpinning and legitimation during this time. Other influential spokesmen included
Lord Cromer,
Lord Curzon,
General Kitchener,
Lord Milner, and the writer
Rudyard Kipling. After the
First Boer War, the
South African Republic and
Orange Free State were recognised by the United Kingdom but eventually re-annexed after the
Second Boer War. But British power was fading, as the reunited
German state founded by the Kingdom of Prussia posed a growing threat to Britain's dominance. As of 1913, the United Kingdom was the world's fourth economy, behind the U.S., Russia and Germany.
Irish War of Independence in 1919–1921 led to the сreation of the Irish Free State. But the United Kingdom gained control of former German and Ottoman colonies with the
League of Nations mandate. The United Kingdom now had a practically continuous line of controlled territories from Egypt to Burma and another one from Cairo to Cape Town. However, this period was also one of emergence of independence movements based on nationalism and new experiences the colonists had gained in the war.
World War II decisively weakened Britain's position in the world, especially financially.
Decolonization movements arose nearly everywhere in the Empire, resulting in
Indian independence and partition in 1947, the self-governing dominions break away from the empire in 1949, and the establishment of independent states in the 1950s. British imperialism showed its frailty in Egypt during the
Suez Crisis in 1956. However, with the United States and Soviet Union emerging from World War II as the sole superpowers, Britain's role as a worldwide power declined significantly and rapidly.
Canada In Canada, the "imperialism" (and the related term "colonialism") has had a variety of contradictory meanings since the 19th century. In the late 19th and early 20th, to be an "imperialist" meant thinking of Canada as a part of the
British nation not a separate nation. The older words for the same concepts were "
loyalism" or "
unionism", which continued to be used as well. In mid-twentieth century Canada, the words "imperialism" and "colonialism" were used in English Canadian discourse to instead portray
Canada as a victim of
economic and cultural penetration by the United States. In twentieth century French-Canadian discourse the "imperialists" were all the
Anglo-Saxon countries including Canada who were oppressing
French-speakers and the
province of Quebec. By the early 21st century, "colonialism" was used to highlight supposed
anti-indigenous attitudes and actions of Canada inherited from the British period.
China China was home to some of the world's oldest empires. Due to its long history of imperialist expansion, China has been seen by its neighboring countries as a threat due to its large population, giant economy, large military force as well as its territorial evolution throughout history. Starting with the unification of China under the
Qin dynasty, later
Chinese dynasties continued to follow its form of expansions. The most successful Chinese imperial dynasties in terms of territorial expansion were the
Han,
Tang,
Yuan, and
Qing dynasties.
Denmark Denmark–Norway (
Denmark after 1814) possessed overseas colonies from 1536 until 1953. At its apex there were colonies on four continents: Europe, North America, Africa and Asia. In the 17th century, following territorial losses on the
Scandinavian Peninsula, Denmark-Norway began to develop colonies, forts, and trading posts in West Africa, the
Caribbean, and the
Indian subcontinent.
Christian IV first initiated the policy of expanding Denmark-Norway's overseas trade, as part of the
mercantilist wave that was sweeping Europe. Denmark-Norway's first colony was established at
Tranquebar on India's southern coast in 1620. Admiral
Ove Gjedde led the expedition that established the colony. After 1814, when Norway was ceded to Sweden, Denmark retained what remained of Norway's
great medieval colonial holdings. One by one the smaller colonies were lost or sold. Tranquebar was sold to the British in 1845. The United States purchased the
Danish West Indies in 1917. Iceland became independent in 1944. Today, the only remaining vestiges are two originally Norwegian colonies that are currently within the
Danish Realm, the
Faroe Islands and
Greenland; the Faroes were a Danish county until 1948, while Greenland's colonial status ceased in 1953. They are now autonomous territories.
Dutch The most notable example of Dutch imperialism is regarding
Indonesia.
Egypt France During the 16th century, the
French colonization of the Americas began with the creation of
New France. It was followed by
French East India Company's trading posts in Africa and Asia in the 17th century. France had its "First colonial empire" from 1534 until 1814, including
New France (
Canada,
Acadia,
Newfoundland and
Louisiana),
French West Indies (
Saint-Domingue, Guadeloupe,
Martinique),
French Guiana,
Senegal (
Gorée),
Mascarene Islands (
Mauritius Island, Réunion) and
French India. Its "Second colonial empire" began with the seizure of
Algiers in 1830 and came for the most part to an end with the granting of independence to
Algeria in 1962. The French imperial history was marked by numerous wars, large and small, and also by significant help to France itself from the colonials in the world wars. France took control of Algeria in 1830 but began in earnest to rebuild its worldwide empire after 1850, concentrating chiefly in North and West Africa (
French North Africa,
French West Africa,
French Equatorial Africa), as well as South-East Asia (
French Indochina), with other conquests in the South Pacific (
New Caledonia,
French Polynesia). France also twice attempted to make Mexico a colony in 1838–39 and in 1861–67 (see
Pastry War and
Second French intervention in Mexico). " French Republicans, at first hostile to empire, only became supportive when Germany started to build her own colonial empire. As it developed, the new empire took on roles of trade with France, supplying raw materials and purchasing manufactured items, as well as lending prestige to the motherland and spreading French civilization and language as well as Catholicism. It also provided crucial manpower in both World Wars. It became a moral justification to lift the world up to French standards by bringing Christianity and French culture. In 1884 the leading exponent of colonialism,
Jules Ferry declared France had a
civilising mission: "The higher races have a right over the lower races, they have a duty to civilize the inferior". Full citizenship rights –
assimilation – were offered, although in reality assimilation was always on the distant horizon. Contrasting from Britain, France sent small numbers of settlers to its colonies, with the only notable exception of Algeria, where French settlers nevertheless always remained a small minority. The French colonial empire of extended over at its height in the 1920s and had a population of 110 million people on the eve of World War II. In World War II,
Charles de Gaulle and the
Free French used the overseas colonies as bases from which they fought to liberate France. However, after 1945 anti-colonial movements began to challenge the Empire. France fought and lost a bitter war in
Vietnam in the 1950s. Whereas they won the war in Algeria, de Gaulle decided to grant Algeria independence anyway in 1962. French settlers and many local supporters relocated to France. Nearly all of France's colonies gained independence by 1960, but France retained significant financial and diplomatic influence. It has repeatedly sent troops to assist its former colonies in Africa in suppressing insurrections and coups d'état.
Education policy French colonial officials, influenced by the revolutionary ideal of equality, standardized schools, curricula, and teaching methods as much as possible. They did not establish colonial school systems with the idea of furthering the ambitions of the local people, but rather exported the systems and methods in vogue in the mother nation. Having a moderately trained lower bureaucracy was of great use to colonial officials. The emerging French-educated indigenous elite saw little value in educating rural peoples. After 1946 the policy was to bring the best students to Paris for advanced training. The result was to immerse the next generation of leaders in the growing anti-colonial diaspora centered in Paris. Impressionistic colonials could mingle with studious scholars or radical revolutionaries or so everything in between.
Ho Chi Minh and other young radicals in Paris formed the French Communist party in 1920. Tunisia was exceptional. The colony was administered by
Paul Cambon, who built an educational system for colonists and indigenous people alike that was closely modeled on mainland France. He emphasized female and vocational education. By independence, the quality of Tunisian education nearly equalled that in France. African nationalists rejected such a public education system, which they perceived as an attempt to retard African development and maintain colonial superiority. One of the first demands of the emerging nationalist movement after World War II was the introduction of full metropolitan-style education in French West Africa with its promise of equality with Europeans. In Algeria, the debate was polarized. The French set up schools based on the scientific method and French culture. The
Pied-Noir (Catholic migrants from Europe) welcomed this. Those goals were rejected by the Moslem Arabs, who prized mental agility and their distinctive religious tradition. The Arabs refused to become patriotic and cultured Frenchmen and a unified educational system was impossible until the Pied-Noir and their Arab allies went into exile after 1962. In South Vietnam from 1955 to 1975 there were two competing powers in education, as the French continued their work and the Americans moved in. They sharply disagreed on goals. The French educators sought to preserving French culture among the Vietnamese elites and relied on the Mission Culturelle – the heir of the colonial Direction of Education – and its prestigious high schools. The Americans looked at the great mass of people and sought to make South Vietnam a nation strong enough to stop communism. The Americans had far more money, as USAID coordinated and funded the activities of expert teams, and particularly of academic missions. The French deeply resented the American invasion of their historical zone of cultural imperialism.
Germany during the 19th century after the
British and the
French ones German expansion into Slavic lands begins in the 12th–13th-century (see
Drang Nach Osten). The concept of Drang Nach Osten was a core element of German nationalism and a major element of
Nazi ideology. However, the German involvement in the seizure of overseas territories was negligible until the end of the 19th century. Prussia unified the other states into the
second German Empire in 1871. Its Chancellor,
Otto von Bismarck (1862–90), long opposed colonial acquisitions, arguing that the burden of obtaining, maintaining, and defending such possessions would outweigh any potential benefits. He felt that colonies did not pay for themselves, that the German bureaucratic system would not work well in the tropics and the diplomatic disputes over colonies would distract Germany from its central interest, Europe itself. However, public opinion and elite opinion in Germany demanded colonies for reasons of international prestige, so Bismarck was forced to oblige. In 1883–84 Germany began to build a colonial empire in Africa and the South Pacific. The establishment of the
German colonial empire started with
German New Guinea in 1884. Within 25 years,
German South West Africa had committed the
Herero and Namaqua genocide in modern-day Namibia, the first genocide of the 20th century. German colonies included the present territories of in Africa:
Tanzania,
Rwanda,
Burundi,
Namibia,
Cameroon,
Ghana and
Togo; in Oceania:
New Guinea,
Solomon Islands,
Nauru,
Marshall Islands,
Mariana Islands,
Caroline Islands and
Samoa; and in Asia:
Qingdao,
Yantai and the
Jiaozhou Bay. The Treaty of Versailles made them mandates under the control the Allied victors. Germany also lost the portions of its Eastern territories that had Polish majorities to independent Poland as a result of the
Treaty of Versailles in 1919. The Eastern territories inhabited by a German majority since the Middle Ages were torn from Germany and became part of both Poland and the USSR as a result of the territorial reorganization established by the
Potsdam Conference of the Allied powers in 1945.
Inca Islamic The
Early Muslim conquests and the
pan-Islamic Caliphate have been described as religious imperialism motivated by
Islamic supremacism.
Italy The
Italian Empire (
Impero italiano) comprised the overseas possessions of the
Kingdom of Italy primarily in northeast Africa. It began with the purchase in 1869 of
Assab Bay on the
Red Sea by an Italian navigation company which intended to establish a coaling station at the time the
Suez Canal was being opened to navigation. This was taken over by the Italian government in 1882, becoming modern Italy's first overseas territory. By the start of the
First World War in 1914, Italy had acquired in Africa the colony of
Eritrea on the Red Sea coast, a large protectorate and later colony in
Somalia, and authority in formerly Ottoman
Tripolitania and
Cyrenaica (gained after the
Italo-Turkish War) which were later unified in the colony of
Libya. Outside Africa, Italy possessed the
Dodecanese Islands off the coast of Turkey (following the Italo-Turkish War) and a
small concession in Tianjin in China following the
Boxer War of 1900. During the First World War, Italy occupied southern
Albania to prevent it from falling to
Austria-Hungary. In 1917, it established
a protectorate over Albania, which remained in place
until 1920. The
Fascist government that came to power with
Benito Mussolini in 1922 sought to increase the size of the Italian empire and to satisfy the claims of
Italian irredentists. After its
second invasion of Ethiopia in 1936, Italy
occupied Ethiopia until 1941.The Italian Empire is generally considered to have reached its greatest territorial extent between 1936 and 1940, following the
conquest of Ethiopia and the proclamation of
Italian East Africa. During this period, Italy controlled Libya, Eritrea, Italian Somaliland, Ethiopia (as part of Italian East Africa), the Dodecanese Islands, and Albania, in addition to smaller concessions elsewhere.The Italian colonial project under
Fascism was justified by a combination of
nationalism,
irredentism, and a so-called
civilizing mission. The regime promoted the spread of Italian language, culture, and institutions in its colonies, presenting colonial expansion as a way to assert Italy's prestige and modernize the territories under its control. Italian authorities established administrative structures and educational institutions in the colonies to govern local populations and train an elite loyal to Italy. Schools for
Italian settlers and selected local students were created, with curricula modeled on the Italian system, aiming to integrate the colonies culturally and politically into the empire. At its peak, the Italian Empire covered several million square kilometers in Africa and the Mediterranean, ruling over millions of inhabitants. This period coincided with the broader maximum territorial extent of the European imperial powers during the interwar years. In 1939,
Italy invaded Albania and
incorporated it into the
Fascist state. During the
Second World War (1939–1945), Italy
occupied British Somaliland,
parts of south-eastern France, western
Egypt and
most of Greece, but then lost those conquests and its African colonies, including Ethiopia, to the invading
allied forces by 1943. It was forced in the
peace treaty of 1947 to relinquish sovereignty over all its colonies. It was granted a
trust to administer former Italian Somaliland under United Nations supervision in 1950. When
Somalia became independent in 1960, Italy's eight-decade experiment with colonialism ended.
Japan in 1942 preparing to land in
Anqing, China, in June 1938 For over 200 years, Japan maintained a feudal society during a period of
relative isolation from the rest of the world. However, in the 1850s,
military pressure from the United States and other world powers coerced Japan to open itself to the global market, resulting in an end to the country's isolation. A
period of conflicts and political revolutions followed due to socioeconomic uncertainty, ending in 1868 with the reunification of political power under the
Japanese Emperor during the
Meiji Restoration. This sparked a period of rapid industrialization driven in part by a Japanese desire for self-sufficiency. By the early 1900s, Japan was a naval power that could hold its own against an established European power as it defeated Russia. Despite its rising population and increasingly industrialized economy, Japan lacked significant natural resources. As a result, the country turned to imperialism and
expansionism in part as a means of compensating for these shortcomings, adopting the national motto "
Fukoku kyōhei" (, "Enrich the state, strengthen the military"). And Japan was eager to take every opportunity. In 1869 they took advantage of the defeat of the rebels of the
Republic of Ezo to formally incorporate the island of
Hokkaido into the Japanese Empire. For centuries, Japan viewed the
Ryukyu Islands as one of its provinces. In 1871 the
Mudan incident happened:
Taiwanese aborigines murdered 54
Ryūkyūan sailors that became shipwrecked. At that time the
Ryukyu Islands were claimed by both
Qing China and Japan, and the Japanese interpreted the incident as an attack on their citizens. They took steps to bring the islands in their jurisdiction: in 1872 the Japanese
Ryukyu Domain was declared, and in 1874 a
retaliatory incursion to Taiwan was sent, which was a success. The success of this expedition emboldened the Japanese: not even the Americans could defeat the Taiwanese in the
Formosa Expedition of 1867. Few gave it much thought at the time, but this was the first move in the Japanese expansionism series. Japan occupied Taiwan for the rest of 1874 and then left owing to Chinese pressures, but in 1879 it finally annexed the
Ryukyu Islands. In 1875 Qing China sent a 300-men force to subdue the Taiwanese, but unlike the Japanese the Chinese were routed, ambushed and 250 of their men were killed; the failure of this expedition exposed once more the failure of Qing China to exert effective control in Taiwan, and acted as another incentive for the Japanese to annex Taiwan. Eventually, the spoils for winning the
First Sino-Japanese War in 1894 included
Taiwan. In 1875 Japan took its first operation against
Joseon Korea, another territory that for centuries it coveted; the
Ganghwa Island incident made Korea open to international trade.
Korea was annexed in 1910. As a result of winning the
Russo-Japanese War in 1905, Japan took part of
Sakhalin Island from Russia. Precisely, the victory against the
Russian Empire shook the world: never before had an Asian nation defeated a European power, and in Japan it was seen as a feat. Japan's victory against Russia would act as an antecedent for Asian countries in the fight against the Western powers for
Decolonization. During
World War I, Japan took German-leased territories in China's Shandong Province, as well as the
Mariana,
Caroline, and
Marshall Islands, and kept the islands as League of nations mandates. At first, Japan was in good standing with the victorious Allied powers of World War I, but different discrepancies and dissatisfaction with the rewards of the treaties cooled the relations with them, for example American pressure forced it to return the Shandong area. By the '30s, economic depression, urgency of resources and a growing distrust in the Allied powers made Japan lean to a hardened militaristic stance. Through the decade, it would grow closer to Germany and Italy, forming together the Axis alliance. In 1931 Japan took
Manchuria from China. International reactions condemned this move, but Japan's already strong skepticism against Allied nations meant that it nevertheless carried on. of Beijing after capturing the city in July 1937. During the
Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, Japan's military invaded central China. Also, in 1938–1939 Japan made an attempt to seize the territory of Soviet Russia and Mongolia, but suffered a serious defeats (see
Battle of Lake Khasan,
Battles of Khalkhin Gol). By now, relations with the Allied powers were at the bottom, and an international boycott against Japan to deprive it of natural resources was enforced. A military move to gain access to them was deemed necessary, and so Japan
attacked Pearl Harbor, bringing the United States to World War II. Using its superior technological advances in
naval aviation and its modern doctrines of
amphibious and
naval warfare, Japan achieved one of the fastest maritime expansions in history. By 1942 Japan had conquered much of East Asia and the Pacific, including the east of China, Hong Kong, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Burma (Myanmar), Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, part of
New Guinea and many islands of the Pacific Ocean. Just as Japan's late industrialization success and victory against the Russian Empire was seen as an example among underdeveloped Asia-Pacific nations, the Japanese took advantage of this and promoted among its conquered the goal to jointly create an anti-European "
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere". This plan helped the Japanese gain support from native populations during its conquests especially in Indonesia. However, the United States had a vastly stronger military and industrial base and defeated Japan, stripping it of conquests and returning its settlers back to Japan.
Mongol Mughal Nomadic empires Ottoman in light green. The Ottoman Empire was an imperial state that lasted from 1299 to 1922. In 1453,
Mehmed the Conqueror captured
Constantinople and made it his capital. During the 16th and 17th centuries, in particular at the height of its power under the reign of
Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire was a powerful multinational, multilingual empire, which
invaded and colonized much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia, the
Caucasus, North Africa, and the
Horn of Africa. Its repeated invasions, and brutal treatment of Slavs led to the
Great Migrations of the Serbs to escape persecution. At the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained
32 provinces and numerous
vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. Following a long period of
military setbacks against European powers, the Ottoman Empire gradually
declined, losing control of much of its territory in Europe and Africa. By 1810 Egypt was effectively independent. In 1821–1829 the Greeks in the
Greek War of Independence were assisted by Russia, Britain and France. In 1815 to 1914 the Ottoman Empire could exist only in the conditions of acute rivalry of the great powers, with Britain its main supporter, especially in the
Crimean War 1853–1856, against Russia. After Ottoman defeat in the
Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro gained independence and Britain took colonial control of
Cyprus, while
Bosnia and Herzegovina were occupied and annexed by
Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1908. The empire allied with Germany in World War I, aiming to recover lost territories, but
dissolved following its decisive defeat. The
Turkish national movement, supported by Soviet Russia, achieved victory in the course of the
Turkish War of Independence, and the parties signed and ratified the
Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 and 1924. The
Republic of Turkey was established.
Persia Portugal The Portuguese Empire comprised the overseas possessions of Portugal from the 15th century until the mid-20th century. It began with
explorations along the West African coast and the establishment of trading posts in Morocco, then expanded to
Brazil,
India (Goa), and parts of
Southeast Asia and Africa, including
Angola and
Mozambique. The Portuguese colonial project was justified by a combination of economic interests, strategic considerations, and a sense of
civilizing mission. Portugal aimed to maintain its historical overseas possessions while spreading
Portuguese language, culture, and
Catholicism. Colonial expansion was also presented as a way to assert Portugal's prestige internationally. Portuguese authorities established administrative systems to govern local populations and maintain control over trade and resources. Educational institutions were limited, often focused on basic literacy and vocational training for selected local elites, while promoting Portuguese language and culture to integrate the colonies politically and culturally. At its height in the early 20th century, the Portuguese Empire controlled territories in Africa, Asia, and South America, including Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde,
São Tomé and Príncipe, Goa,
Macau, and
East Timor. This period coincided with the broader maximum territorial extent of the European imperial powers during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The Portuguese Empire gradually declined after World War I and, later, after World War II, as independence movements arose in Africa and Asia. Most of the
African colonies gained independence in the 1970s, marking the end of Portugal's overseas empire.
Rome around 117 AD The Roman Empire was the post-
Republican period of
ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings around the
Mediterranean Sea in Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia, ruled by
emperors. The foundation of the empire is traditionally dated to 27 BC, when
Augustus became the first emperor, and it continued in the West until
476 AD, while the
Eastern Roman Empire (later called the Byzantine Empire) survived until
1453. The expansion of Rome was driven by a combination of military conquest, economic interests, and cultural assimilation. Roman authorities promoted
Roman law, language (
Latin),
religion (including the adoption of
Christianity in the 4th century),
architecture, and infrastructure, presenting conquest as a way to integrate and stabilize conquered peoples. Roman administration relied on a system of provinces, each governed by officials appointed by the emperor. Local elites were often co-opted into the administration, ensuring loyalty and effective governance.
Roads,
aqueducts,
harbors, and public buildings facilitated communication, trade, and military movements across the vast empire. The
Roman army was a key instrument of power, with disciplined legions stationed in strategic regions to maintain order and defend borders. Military innovations, fortifications, and strategic roads enabled Rome to control distant territories and respond quickly to threats.
Roman culture, law, and
citizenship were extended gradually to conquered peoples. The introduction of Roman citizenship, urban planning, and public institutions helped unify diverse populations and created a sense of shared identity. At its territorial peak under
Emperor Trajan around 117 AD, the Roman Empire covered approximately 5 million square kilometres and ruled over
60–70 million people. The empire had a lasting impact on
Western civilization, including law, language, architecture, engineering, literature, and governance models. Despite
political instability,
economic challenges, and
external invasions, the Eastern Roman Empire preserved Roman traditions, administration, and law for nearly a thousand years, influencing medieval and modern Europe.
Russia Russian Empire By the 18th century, the
Russian Empire extended its control to the Pacific, peacefully forming a common border with the
Qing Empire and
Empire of Japan. This took place in a large number of military invasions of the lands east, west, and south of it. The
Polish–Russian War of 1792 took place after Polish nobility from the
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth wrote the
Constitution of 3 May 1791. The war resulted in eastern
Poland being conquered by Imperial Russia as a colony until 1918. The southern campaigns involved a series of
Russo-Persian Wars, which began with the
Persian Expedition of 1796, resulting in the acquisition of
Georgia as a protectorate. Between 1800 and 1864, Imperial armies invaded south in the
Russian conquest of the Caucasus, the
Murid War, and the
Russo-Circassian War. This last conflict led to the
ethnic cleansing of Circassians from their lands. The
Russian conquest of Siberia over the
Khanate of Sibir took place in the 16th and 17th centuries, and resulted in the slaughter of various indigenous tribes by Russians, including the
Daur, the
Koryaks, the
Itelmens,
Mansi people and the
Chukchi. The Russian colonization of Central and Eastern Europe and Siberia and treatment of the resident indigenous peoples has been compared to European colonization of the Americas, with similar negative impacts on the indigenous Siberians as upon the indigenous peoples of the Americas. The extermination of indigenous Siberian tribes was so complete that a relatively small population of only 180,000 are said to exist today. The Russian Empire exploited and suppressed
Cossacks hosts during this period, before turning them into the special military estate
Sosloviye in the late 18th century. Cossacks were then used in Imperial Russian campaigns against other tribes. The acquisition of Ukraine by Russia commenced in 1654 with the
Pereiaslav Agreement. Georgia's accession to Russia in 1783 was marked by the
Treaty of Georgievsk.
Soviet Union ,
East Prussia,
western Ukraine,
Kuril IslandsImperial territories that did not become part of the Soviet UnionSoviet sphere of influence:
Warsaw Pact,
MongoliaSoviet military occupation:
northern Iran,
Manchuria,
northern Korea,
Xinjiang,
Afghanistan Bolshevik leaders had effectively reestablished a polity with roughly the same extent as that empire by 1921, however with an internationalist ideology: Lenin in particular asserted the right to limited self-determination for national minorities within the new territory. Beginning in 1923, the policy of "
Indigenization" [korenizatsiya] was intended to support non-Russians develop their national cultures within a socialist framework. Never formally revoked, it stopped being implemented after 1932. After World War II, the
Soviet Union installed socialist regimes modeled on those it had installed in 1919–20 in the old
Russian Empire, in areas its forces occupied in Eastern Europe. The Soviet Union and later the People's Republic of China supported revolutionary and communist movements in foreign nations and colonies to advance their own interests, but were not always successful. The USSR provided great assistance to
Kuomintang in 1926–1928 in the formation of a unified Chinese government (see
Northern Expedition). Although then relations with the USSR deteriorated, but the USSR was the only world power that provided military assistance to China against Japanese aggression in 1937–1941 (see
Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact). The victory of the Chinese Communists in the civil war of 1946–1949 relied on the great help of the USSR (see
Chinese Civil War). Although the
Soviet Union declared itself
anti-imperialist, critics argue that it exhibited traits common to historic empires. Some scholars hold that the Soviet Union was a hybrid entity containing elements common to both multinational empires and nation-states. Some also argued that the USSR practiced colonialism as did other imperial powers and was carrying on the old Russian tradition of expansion and control. Some Marxists within the Russian Empire and later the USSR, like
Sultan Galiev and
Vasyl Shakhrai, considered the Soviet regime a renewed version of the Russian imperialism and colonialism. The crushing of the
Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and
Soviet–Afghan War have been cited as examples.
Russia under Putin compared himself to Emperor
Peter the Great in an effort to regain former Russian lands. Since the 2010s,
Russia under Vladimir Putin has been described as
neo-imperialist. Russia
occupies parts of neighboring countries and has engaged in
expansionism, most notably with the 2008
Russian invasion of Georgia, the 2014
annexation of Crimea, and the
2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine and
annexation of its southeast. Russia has also established
domination over Belarus. Four months into the invasion of Ukraine, Putin compared himself to Russian emperor
Peter the Great. He said that
Tsar Peter had
returned "Russian land" to the empire, and that "it is now also our responsibility to return (Russian) land". Kseniya Oksamytna wrote that in Russia media, the invasion was accompanied by discourses of Russian "supremacy". She says that this likely fuelled
war crimes against Ukrainians and that "the behavior of Russian forces bore all hallmarks of imperial violence". The Putin regime has revived imperial ideas such as the "
Russian world" and the ideology of
Eurasianism. It has used
disinformation and the
Russian diaspora to undermine the sovereignty of other countries. Russia is also accused of
neo-colonialism in Africa, mainly through the
activities of the Wagner Group and Africa Corps.
Spain Spanish imperialism in the colonial era corresponds with the rise and decline of the
Spanish Empire, conventionally recognized as emerging in 1402 with the conquest of the Canary Islands. Following the successes of exploratory maritime voyages conducted during the
Age of Discovery, Spain committed considerable financial and military resources towards developing a robust navy capable of conducting large-scale, transatlantic expeditionary operations in order to establish and solidify a firm imperial presence across large portions of North America, South America, and the geographic regions comprising the
Caribbean basin. Concomitant with Spanish endorsement and sponsorship of transatlantic expeditionary voyages was the deployment of
Conquistadors, which further expanded Spanish imperial boundaries through the acquisition and development of territories and colonies.
Imperialism in the Caribbean basin In congruence with the colonialist activities of competing European imperial powers throughout the 15th – 19th centuries, the Spanish were equally engrossed in extending geopolitical power. The Caribbean basin functioned as a key geographic focal point for advancing Spanish imperialism. Similar to the strategic prioritization Spain placed towards achieving victory in the conquests of the
Aztec Empire and
Inca Empire, Spain placed equal strategic emphasis on expanding the nation's imperial footprint within the Caribbean basin. Echoing the prevailing ideological perspectives regarding colonialism and imperialism embraced by Spain's European rivals during the colonial era, including the English, French, and the Dutch, the Spanish used colonialism as a means of expanding imperial geopolitical borders and securing the defense of maritime trade routes in the Caribbean basin. While leveraging colonialism in the same geographic operating theater as its imperial rivals, Spain maintained distinct imperial objectives and instituted a unique form of colonialism in support of its imperial agenda. Spain placed significant strategic emphasis on the acquisition, extraction, and exportation of precious metals (primarily gold and silver). A second objective was the evangelization of subjugated indigenous populations residing in mineral-rich and strategically favorable locations. Notable examples of these indigenous groups include the
Taίno populations inhabiting Puerto Rico and segments of Cuba. Compulsory labor and slavery were widely institutionalized across Spanish-occupied territories and colonies, with an initial emphasis on directing labor towards mining activity and related methods of procuring semi-precious metals. The emergence of the
Encomienda system during the 16th–17th centuries in occupied colonies within the Caribbean basin reflects a gradual shift in imperial prioritization, increasingly focusing on large-scale production and exportation of agricultural commodities.
Scholarly debate and controversy The scope and scale of Spanish participation in imperialism within the Caribbean basin remains a subject of scholarly debate among historians. A fundamental source of contention stems from the inadvertent conflation of theoretical conceptions of imperialism and colonialism. Furthermore, significant variation exists in the definition and interpretation of these terms as expounded by historians, anthropologists, philosophers, and political scientists. Among historians, there is substantial support in favor of approaching imperialism as a conceptual theory emerging during the 18th–19th centuries, particularly within Britain, propagated by key exponents such as
Joseph Chamberlain and
Benjamin Disraeli. In accordance with this theoretical perspective, the activities of the Spanish in the Caribbean are not components of a preeminent, ideologically driven form of imperialism. Rather, these activities are more accurately classified as representing a form of colonialism. Further divergence among historians can be attributed to varying theoretical perspectives regarding imperialism that are proposed by emerging academic schools of thought. Noteworthy examples include
cultural imperialism, whereby proponents such as John Downing and Annabelle Sreberny-Modammadi define imperialism as "...the conquest and control of one country by a more powerful one." Cultural imperialism signifies the dimensions of the process that go beyond economic exploitation or military force." Moreover, colonialism is understood as "...the form of imperialism in which the government of the colony is run directly by foreigners." In spite of diverging perspectives and the absence of a unilateral scholarly consensus regarding imperialism among historians, within the context of Spanish expansion in the Caribbean basin during the colonial era, imperialism can be interpreted as an overarching ideological agenda that is perpetuated through the institution of colonialism. In this context, colonialism functions as an instrument designed to achieve specific imperialist objectives.
Sweden United States , 1898 placing Spain on notice, Made up of former colonies itself, the early United States expressed its opposition to imperialism, at least in a form distinct from its own
Manifest Destiny, through policies such as the
Monroe Doctrine. However the US may have unsuccessfully attempted to capture Canada in the
War of 1812. The United States achieved significant territorial concessions from Mexico during the
Mexican–American War. Beginning in the late 19th and early 20th century, policies such as
Theodore Roosevelt's interventionism in Central America and
Woodrow Wilson's mission to "make the world safe for democracy" changed all this. They were often backed by military force, but were more often affected from behind the scenes. This is consistent with the general notion of hegemony and imperium of historical empires. In 1898, Americans who opposed imperialism created the
Anti-Imperialist League to oppose the
US annexation of the Philippines and Cuba. One year later, a war erupted in the Philippines causing business, labor and government leaders in the US to condemn America's occupation in the Philippines as they also denounced them for causing the deaths of many Filipinos. American foreign policy was denounced as a "racket" by
Smedley Butler, a former American general who had become a spokesman for the far left. At the start of World War II, President Franklin D. Roosevelt was opposed to European colonialism, especially in India. He pulled back when Britain's Winston Churchill demanded that victory in the war be the first priority. Roosevelt expected that the United Nations would take up the problem of decolonization. Some have described the internal strife between various people groups as a form of imperialism or colonialism. This internal form is distinct from informal U.S. imperialism in the form of political and financial hegemony. It also showed difference in the United States' formation of "colonies" abroad. Participation in the African slave trade and the subsequent treatment of its 12 to 15 million Africans is viewed by some to be a more modern extension of America's "internal colonialism". However, this internal colonialism faced resistance, as external colonialism did, but the anti-colonial presence was far less prominent due to the nearly complete dominance that the United States was able to assert over both indigenous peoples and African-Americans. In a lecture on April 16, 2003, Edward Said described modern imperialism in the United States as an aggressive means of attack towards the contemporary Orient stating that "due to their backward living, lack of democracy and the violation of women's rights. The western world forgets during this process of converting the other that enlightenment and democracy are concepts that not all will agree upon". ==Anti-imperialism==