Prehistory The oldest
archaic human remains in the Philippines are the "
Callao Man" specimens discovered in 2007 in the
Callao Cave in
Northern Luzon. They were dated in 2010 through
uranium-series dating to the
Late Pleistocene, c. 67,000 years old. The remains were initially identified as modern human, but after the discovery of more specimens in 2019, they have been reclassified as being members of a new species –
Homo luzonensis. The oldest indisputable modern human (
Homo sapiens) remains in the
Philippines are the "
Tabon Man" fossils discovered in the
Tabon Caves in the 1960s by
Robert B. Fox, an
anthropologist from the
National Museum. These were dated to the
Paleolithic, at around 26,000 to 24,000 years ago. The Tabon Cave complex also indicates that the caves were inhabited by humans continuously from at least 47,000 ± 11,000 years ago to around 9,000 years ago. The caves were also later used as a burial site by unrelated
Neolithic and
Metal Age cultures in the area. and their
languages. The Tabon Cave remains (along with the
Niah Cave remains of
Borneo and the
Tam Pa Ling remains of
Laos) are part of the "First
Sundaland People", the earliest branch of
anatomically modern humans to reach
Island Southeast Asia at the time of lowered sea levels of
Sundaland, with only one 3 km sea crossing. They entered the Philippines from Borneo via
Palawan at around 50,000 to 40,000 years ago. Their descendants are collectively known as the
Negrito people, although they are highly genetically divergent from each other. Philippine Negritos show a high degree of
Denisovan Admixture, similar to
Papuans and
Indigenous Australians, in contrast to Malaysian and Andamanese Negritos (the
Orang Asli). This indicates that Philippine Negritos, Papuans, and Indigenous Australians share a common ancestor that admixed with
Denisovans at around 44,000 years ago. Negritos include ethnic groups like the
Aeta (including the Agta, Arta, Dumagat, etc.) of Luzon, the
Ati of
Western Visayas, the
Batak of
Palawan, and the
Mamanwa of
Mindanao. Today they comprise just 0.03% of the total Philippine population. After the Negritos, were two early Paleolithic migrations from East Asian (basal
Austric, an ethnic group which includes
Austroasiatics) people, they entered the Philippines at around 15,000 and 12,000 years ago, respectively. Like the Negritos, they entered the Philippines during the lowered sea levels during the
last ice age, when the only water crossings required were less than 3 km wide (such as the
Sibutu strait). They retain partial genetic signals among the
Manobo people and the
Sama-Bajau people of
Mindanao. The last wave of prehistoric migrations to reach the Philippines was the
Austronesian expansion which started in the
Neolithic at around 4,500 to 3,500 years ago, when a branch of
Austronesians from
Taiwan (the ancestral
Malayo-Polynesian-speakers) migrated to the
Batanes Islands and
Luzon. They spread quickly throughout the rest of the islands of the Philippines and became the dominant ethnolinguistic group. They admixed with the earlier settlers, resulting in the modern Filipinos – which though predominantly genetically Austronesian still show varying genetic admixture with Negritos (and vice versa for Negrito ethnic groups which show significant Austronesian admixture). Austronesians possessed advanced sailing technologies and colonized the Philippines via sea-borne migration, in contrast to earlier groups. The connections between the various
Austronesian peoples have also been known since the
colonial era due to shared
material culture and linguistic similarities of various peoples of the islands of the
Indo-Pacific, leading to the designation of Austronesians as the "
Malay race" (or the "
Brown race") during the age of
scientific racism by
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach. Due to the
colonial American education system in the early 20th century, the term "Malay race" is still used incorrectly in the Philippines to refer to the Austronesian peoples, leading to
confusion with the non-indigenous
Melayu people.
Archaic epoch (to 1565) Since at least the 3rd century, various ethnic groups established several communities. These were formed by the assimilation of various native Philippine kingdoms.
Cebu,
Iloilo,
Butuan, the Kingdom of
Sanfotsi situated in
Pangasinan, the Kingdom of Luzon now known as
Pampanga which specialized in trade with most of what is now known as Southeast Asia and with China, Japan and the
Kingdom of Ryukyu in
Okinawa. From the 9th century onwards, a large number of
Arab traders from the Middle East settled in the
Malay Archipelago and intermarried with the local
Malay, Bruneian, Malaysian, Indonesian and
Luzon and
Visayas indigenous populations. In the years leading up to 1000 AD, there were already several maritime societies existing in the islands but there was no unifying political
state encompassing the entire Philippine archipelago. Instead, the region was dotted by numerous semi-autonomous
barangays (settlements ranging in size from villages to city-states) under the sovereignty of competing
thalassocracies ruled by
datus,
rajahs or
sultans or by upland agricultural societies ruled by "petty plutocrats". Nations such as the Wangdoms of
Pangasinan and
Ma-i as well as Ma-i's subordinates, the
Barangay states of
Pulilu and
Sandao; the Kingdoms of
Maynila,
Namayan, and
Tondo; the
Kedatuans of Madja-as,
Dapitan, and
Cainta; the Rajahnates of
Cebu,
Butuan and
Sanmalan; and the Sultanates of
Buayan,
Maguindanao,
Lanao and
Sulu; existed alongside the highland societies of the
Ifugao and
Mangyan. Some of these regions were part of the Malayan empires of
Srivijaya,
Majapahit and
Brunei. File:Naturales 4.png|
Tagalog maharlika, c.1590
Boxer Codex File:Naturales 5.png|
Tagalog maginoo, c.1590
Boxer Codex File:Visayans 3.png|
Visayan kadatuan, c.1590
Boxer Codex File:Naturales 2.png|Native
commoner women, c.1590
Boxer Codex File:Visayans 2.png|
Visayan timawa, c.1590
Boxer Codex File:Visayans 1.png|
Visayan pintados (tattooed), c. 1590
Boxer Codex File:Naturales 1.png|
Visayan uripon (slaves), c. 1590
Boxer Codex Historic caste systems Datu – The
Tagalog maginoo, the
Kapampangan ginu and the
Visayan tumao were the nobility social class among various cultures of the pre-colonial Philippines. Among the Visayans, the tumao were further distinguished from the immediate royal families or a ruling class.
Timawa – The timawa class were free commoners of Luzon and the Visayas who could own their own land and who did not have to pay a regular tribute to a maginoo, though they would, from time to time, be obliged to work on a datu's land and help in community projects and events. They were free to change their allegiance to another datu if they married into another community or if they decided to move.
Maharlika – Members of the Tagalog warrior class known as maharlika had the same rights and responsibilities as the timawa, but in times of war they were bound to serve their datu in battle. They had to arm themselves at their own expense, but they did get to keep the loot they took. Although they were partly related to the nobility, the maharlikas were technically less free than the timawas because they could not leave a datu's service without first hosting a large public feast and paying the datu between 6 and 18 pesos in gold – a large sum in those days.
Alipin – Commonly described as "servant" or "slave". However, this is inaccurate. The concept of the alipin relied on a complex system of obligation and repayment through labor in ancient Philippine society, rather than on the actual purchase of a person as in Western and Islamic
slavery. Members of the alipin class who owned their own houses were more accurately equivalent to medieval European
serfs and commoners. By the 15th century, Arab and Indian missionaries and traders from Malaysia and Indonesia brought Islam to the Philippines, where it both replaced and was practiced together with indigenous religions. Before that, indigenous tribes of the Philippines practiced a mixture of
Animism,
Hinduism and
Buddhism. Native villages, called
barangays were populated by locals called Timawa (Middle Class/freemen) and Alipin (servants and slaves). They were ruled by
Rajahs,
Datus and
Sultans, a class called
Maginoo (royals) and defended by the
Maharlika (Lesser nobles, royal warriors and aristocrats).
Spanish period (1521–1898) '' works by
Justiniano Asuncion|alt= , with
Native and
Sangley Chinese traders The first census in the Philippines was in 1591, based on tributes collected. The tributes counted the total founding population of the Spanish Philippines as 667,612 people. 20,000 were Chinese migrant traders, at different times: around 15,600 individuals were Latino soldier-colonists who were cumulatively sent from Peru and Mexico and they were shipped to the Philippines annually, 3,000 were Japanese residents, and 600 were pure Spaniards from Europe. There was a large but unknown number of
South Asian Filipinos, as the majority of the slaves imported into the archipelago were from
Bengal and Southern India, adding
Dravidian speaking South Indians and
Indo-European speaking
Bengalis into the ethnic mix. The Philippines was governed by the Spaniards. The arrival of Portuguese explorer
Ferdinand Magellan () in 1521 began a period of European immigration. During the Spanish period, the Philippines was part of the
Viceroyalty of
New Spain, which was governed and administered from
Mexico City. Early Spanish settlers were mostly explorers, soldiers, government officials and religious
missionaries born in Spain and Mexico. Most Spaniards who settled were of
Basque ancestry, but there were also settlers of
Andalusian,
Catalan, and
Moorish descent. The
Peninsulares (governors born in Spain), mostly of
Castilian ancestry, settled in the islands to govern their territory. Most settlers married the daughters of
rajahs,
datus, and
sultans to reinforce the alliances of the islands. The
Ginoo and
Maharlika castes (royals and nobles) in the Philippines prior to the arrival of the Spaniards formed the privileged
Principalía (nobility) during the early Spanish period.
Chinese merchant and
Native Filipina of
Manila by
José Honorato Lozano|200x200px , connecting
Quanzhou to Manila return route of the
Manila-Acapulco galleon trade, connecting the Philippines to the
Americas and
Portuguese Empires The arrival of the Spaniards to the Philippines, especially through the commencement of the
Manila-Acapulco galleon trade that connected the
Philippines through
Manila to
Acapulco in
Mexico, attracted new waves of immigrants from
China, as Manila was already previously connected to the
Maritime Silk Road, as shown in the
Selden Map, from
Quanzhou and
Zhangzhou in
Southern Fujian to
Manila, maritime trade flourished during the Spanish period, especially as Manila was connected to the ports of
Southern Fujian, such as
Yuegang (the old port of
Haicheng in
Zhangzhou,
Fujian). The Spaniards recruited thousands of Chinese migrant workers from "
Chinchew" (
Quanzhou), "
Chiõ Chiu" (
Zhangzhou), "
Canton" (
Guangzhou), and
Macau called
sangleys (from
Hokkien ) to build the colonial infrastructure in the islands. Many Chinese immigrants converted to Christianity, intermarried with the locals, and adopted Hispanized names and customs and became assimilated, although the children of unions between Filipinos and Chinese that became assimilated continued to be designated in official records as
mestizos de sangley. The Chinese mestizos were largely confined to the
Binondo area until the 19th century. However, they eventually spread all over the islands and became traders, landowners and moneylenders. Today, their descendants still comprise a significant part of the
Philippine population especially its
bourgeois, who during the late
Spanish Era in the late 19th century, produced a major part of the
ilustrado intelligentsia of the late
Spanish Philippines, that were very influential with the creation of
Filipino nationalism and the sparking of the
Philippine Revolution as part of the foundation of the
First Philippine Republic and subsequent sovereign independent
Philippines. Today, the bulk of the families in the
list of the political families in the Philippines have such family background. Meanwhile, the Spanish-era Sangley's pure ethnic Chinese descendants of which, replenished by later migrants in the 20th century, that preserved at least some of their
Chinese culture, integrated together with mainstream
Filipino culture, are now in the form of the modern
Chinese Filipino community, who currently play a leading role in the Philippine business sector and contribute a significant share of the
Philippine economy today, where most in the current list of the Philippines' richest each year comprise
Taipan billionaires of Chinese Filipino background, mostly of
Hokkien descent, where most still trace their roots back to mostly
Jinjiang or
Nan'an within
Quanzhou or sometimes
Xiamen (Amoy) or
Zhangzhou, all within
Southern Fujian, the Philippines' historical trade partner with
Mainland China. In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of
Japanese traders also migrated to the Philippines and assimilated into the local population. Many were assimilated throughout the centuries, especially through the tumultuous period of
World War II. Today, there is a small growing
Nikkei community of
Japanese Filipinos in
Davao with roots to the old
Little Japan in Mintal or Calinan in
Davao City during the
American colonial period, where many had roots starting out in
Abaca plantations or from workers of the Benguet Road (
Kennon Road) to
Baguio.
British forces occupied Manila between 1762 and 1764 as a part of the
Seven Years' War. However, the only part of the Philippines which the British held was the
Spanish capital of
Manila and the principal naval port of
Cavite, both of which are located by the
Manila Bay. The war was ended by the
Treaty of Paris (1763). At the end of the war the treaty signatories were not aware that Manila had been taken by the British and was being administered as a British colony. Consequently, no specific provision was made for the Philippines. Instead they fell under the general provision that all other lands not otherwise provided for be returned to the
Spanish Empire. Many
Indian Sepoy troops and their British captains mutinied and were left in Manila and some parts of the
Ilocos and
Cagayan. The
Indian Filipinos in Manila settled at
Cainta, Rizal and the ones in the north settled in
Isabela. Most were assimilated into the local population. Even before the British invasion, there were already also a large but unknown number of
Indian Filipinos as majority of the slaves imported into the archipelago were from
Bengal or Southern
India, adding
Dravidian speaking South Indians and
Indo-European speaking
Bangladeshis into the ethnic mix. ,
Marcelo H. del Pilar, and
Mariano Ponce (c. 1890)
Sangley y
Chino (Sangley Chinese or Chinese Mestizos), c. 1841 Tipos del País'', watercolor by
Justiniano Asuncion A total of 110
Manila-Acapulco galleons set sail between 1565 and 1815, during the Philippines trade with Mexico. Until 1593, three or more ships would set sail annually from each port bringing with them the riches of the archipelago to Spain. European
criollos,
mestizos and Portuguese, French and Mexican descent from the Americas, mostly from Latin America came in contact with the Filipinos.
Japanese,
Indian and
Cambodian Christians who fled from religious persecutions and killing fields also settled in the Philippines during the 17th until the 19th centuries. The Mexicans especially were a major source of military migration to the Philippines and during the Spanish period they were referred to as guachinangos and they readily intermarried and mixed with native Filipinos. Bernal, the author of the book "Mexico en Filipinas" contends, that they were middlemen, the guachinangos in contrast to the Spanish and criollos, known as Castila, that had positions in power and were isolated, the guachinangos in the meantime, had interacted with the natives of the Philippines, while in contrast, the exchanges between Castila and native were negligent. Following Bernal, these two groups—native Filipinos and the Castila—had been two "mutually unfamiliar castes" that had "no real contact." Between them, he clarifies however, were the Chinese traders and the guachinangos (Mexicans). and two parents, per tribute) and came upon the following statistics: The Spanish-Filipino population as a proportion of the provinces widely varied; with as high as 19% of the population of Tondo province and
Zamboanga 40%. since during the Philippine Revolution to modern times, the term "Filipino" was expanded to include everyone born in the Philippines coming from any race, as per the
Philippine nationality law. That would explain the abrupt drop of otherwise high Chinese, Spanish and mestizo, percentages across the country by the time of the first American census in 1903. By the 20th century, the remaining ethnic Spaniards and ethnic Chinese, replenished by further Chinese migrants in the 20th century, now later came to compose the modern
Spanish Filipino community and
Chinese Filipino community respectively, where families of such background contribute a significant share of the
Philippine economy today, ,
American /
European and
Japanese settlers in the Philippines, 1900 The
Philippine–American War resulted in the deaths of at least 200,000 Filipino civilians. Some estimates for total civilian dead reach up to 1,000,000. After the Philippine–American War, the United States civil governance was established in 1901, with
William Howard Taft as the first American
Governor-General. A number of Americans settled in the islands and thousands of interracial marriages between Americans and Filipinos have taken place since then. Owing to the strategic location of the Philippines, as many as 21 bases and 100,000 military personnel were stationed there since the United States first colonized the islands in 1898. These bases were decommissioned in 1992 after the end of the
Cold War, but left behind thousands of
Amerasian children. The country gained
independence from the United States in 1946. The
Pearl S. Buck International Foundation estimates there are 52,000 Amerasians scattered throughout the Philippines. However, according to the center of Amerasian Research, there might be as many as 250,000
Amerasians scattered across the cities of
Clark,
Angeles City,
Manila, and
Olongapo. In addition, numerous Filipino men enlisted in the US Navy and made careers in it, often settling with their families in the United States. Some of their second- or third-generation families returned to the country. Following its independence, the Philippines has seen both small and large-scale immigration into the country, mostly involving American, European, Chinese and Japanese peoples. After World War II,
South Asians continued to migrate into the islands, most of which assimilated and avoided the local social stigma instilled by the early Spaniards against them by keeping a low profile or by trying to pass as Spanish mestizos. This was also true for the Arab and Chinese immigrants, many of whom are also post WWII arrivals. More recent migrations into the country by
Koreans,
Persians,
Brazilians, and other Southeast Asians have contributed to the enrichment of the country's ethnic landscape, language and culture. Centuries of
migration,
diaspora,
assimilation, and
cultural diversity made most Filipinos accepting of
interracial marriage and
multiculturalism.
Philippine nationality law is currently based upon the principle of
jus sanguinis and, therefore, descent from a parent who is a citizen of the Republic of the Philippines is the primary method of acquiring national citizenship. Birth in the Philippines to foreign parents does not in itself confer Philippine citizenship, although RA9139, the Administrative Naturalization Law of 2000, does provide a path for administrative naturalization of certain aliens born in the Philippines. Since many of the above historical groups came to the Philippines before its establishment as an independent state, many have also gained citizenship before the founding of either the
First Philippines Republic or
Third Republic of the Philippines. For example, many
Cold-War-era Chinese migrants who had relatives in the Philippines attain
Filipino citizenship for their children through
marriage with
Chinese Filipino families that trace back to either the late
Spanish Era or
American Colonial Era. Likewise, many other modern expatriates from various countries, such as the
US, often come to the
Philippines to marry with a
Filipino citizen, ensuring their future children attain
Filipino citizenship and their Filipino spouses ensure
property ownership.
Social classifications During the
Spanish period,
Spaniards from
Spain and
Hispanic America mainly referred to
Spaniards born in the Philippines (Spanish Filipinos) in in relation to those born in Hispanic America called in , whereas the Spaniards born in the Philippines themselves called the Spaniards from Spain as "
Peninsular/es" with themselves also referred to as "
Insular/es". though the
Mestizos de Español (
Spanish Mestizos) carried more
social prestige due to the
caste system hierarchy that usually elevated
Spanish blood and
Christianized natives to the peak, while most descendants of the
Mestizo de Sangley (
Chinese Mestizo), despite assuming many of the important roles in the economic, social and political life of the nation, would readily assimilate into the fabric of Philippine society. Despite regional, linguistic, and cultural diversity, Filipinos are commonly linked by shared historical experiences, civic traditions, and national institutions that contribute to a collective sense of identity. , the only Spanish prime minister of mestizo (Filipino) descent People classified as 'blancos' (whites) were the insulares or "Filipinos" (a person born in the Philippines of pure Spanish descent), peninsulares (a person born in Spain of pure Spanish descent), Español mestizos (a person born in the Philippines of mixed Austronesian and Spanish ancestry) and tornatrás (a person born in the Philippines of mixed Austronesian, Chinese and Spanish ancestry).
Manila was racially segregated, with blancos living in the walled city of
Intramuros, un-Christianized sangleys in Parían, Christianized sangleys and mestizos de sangley in Binondo and the rest of the 7,000 islands for the indios, with the exception of Cebu and several other Spanish posts. Only mestizos de sangley were allowed to enter Intramuros to work for whites (including mestizos de español) as servants and various occupations needed for the colony. Indio were native Austronesians, but as a legal classification, Indio were those who embraced Roman Catholicism and Austronesians who lived in proximity to the Spanish colonies. People who lived outside
Manila,
Cebu and the major Spanish posts were classified as such: 'Naturales' were Catholic Austronesians of the lowland and coastal towns. The un-Catholic Negritos and
Austronesians who lived in the towns were classified as 'salvajes' (savages) or 'infieles' (the unfaithful). 'Remontados' (Spanish for 'situated in the mountains') and 'tulisanes' (bandits) were
indigenous Austronesians and Negritos who refused to live in towns and took to the hills, all of whom were considered to live outside the social order as Catholicism was a driving force in Spanish everyday life, as well as determining social class in the territory. People of pure Spanish descent living in the
Philippines who were born in Spanish America were classified as 'americanos'. Mestizos and africanos born in Spanish America living in the Philippines kept their legal classification as such and usually came as indentured servants to the 'americanos'. The Philippine-born children of 'americanos' were classified as 'Ins'. The Philippine-born children of mestizos and Africanos from Spanish America were classified based on patrilineal descent. '' woman in a photograph by Francisco Van Camp, c. 1875 The term
negrito was coined by the Spaniards based on their appearance. The word 'negrito' would be misinterpreted and used by future European scholars as an ethnoracial term in and of itself. Both Christianized negritos who lived in the archipelago and un-Christianized negritos who lived in tribes outside were classified as 'negritos'. Christianized negritos who lived in Manila were not allowed to enter Intramuros and lived in areas designated for indios. A person of mixed
Negrito and
Austronesian ancestry were classified based on patrilineal descent; the father's ancestry determined a child's legal classification. If the father was 'negrito' and the mother was 'India' (Austronesian), the child was classified as 'negrito'. If the father was 'indio' and the mother was 'negrita', the child was classified as 'indio'. Persons of Negrito descent were viewed as being outside the social order as they usually lived in tribes outside and resisted conversion to
Christianity. This legal system of racial classification based on patrilineal descent had no parallel anywhere in the Spanish-ruled territories in the Americas. In general, a son born of a sangley male and an indio or mestizo de sangley female was classified as mestizo de sangley; all subsequent male descendants were mestizos de sangley regardless of whether they married an India or a mestiza de sangley. A daughter born in such a manner, however, acquired the legal classification of her husband, i.e., she became an India if she married an indio but remained a mestiza de sangley if she married a mestizo de sangley or a sangley. In this way, a chino mestizo male descendant of a paternal sangley ancestor never lost his legal status as a mestizo de sangley no matter how little percentage of Chinese blood he had in his veins or how many generations had passed since his first Chinese ancestor; he was thus a mestizo de sangley in perpetuity. However, a 'mestiza de sangley' who married a blanco ('Filipino', 'mestizo de español', 'peninsular' or 'americano') kept her status as 'mestiza de sangley'. But her children were classified as tornatrás. An 'India' who married a blanco also kept her status as India, but her children were classified as mestizo de español. A mestiza de español who married another blanco would keep her status as mestiza, but her status will never change from mestiza de español if she married a mestizo de español, Filipino or peninsular. In contrast, a mestizo (de sangley or español) man's status stayed the same regardless of whom he married. If a mestizo (de sangley or español) married a filipina (woman of pure Spanish descent), she would lose her status as a 'filipina' and would acquire the legal status of her husband and become a mestiza de español or sangley. If a 'filipina' married an 'indio', her legal status would change to 'India', despite being of pure Spanish descent. The
de facto social stratification system based on class that continues to this day in the country had its beginnings in the Spanish area with a discriminating caste system. The Insulares, who already saw their distinct identity from the peninsulares adopted the term
Filipino to refer to themselves. And among these Insulares Luis Rodriguez y Varela was the first to use it. The use of the term was later adopted by the Spanish and Chinese
mestizos or those born of mixed Chinese-indio or Spanish-indio descent. Late in the 19th century,
José Rizal popularized the use of the term
Filipino to refer to all those born in the Philippines, including the Indios. When ordered to sign the notification of his death sentence, which described him as a Chinese mestizo, Rizal refused. He went to his death saying that he was
indio puro. File:Huang Qing Zhigong Tu - 041.jpg|Depiction of the Luzon Filipinos in 1700s from the Chinese book
Huang Qing Zhigong Tu 1769. The Chinese called them Lu Song whom they recognized as a prosperous and powerful "kingdom" under the Spanish Empire. File:Filipino dragoon horseback 1786.jpg|Filipino
Dragoon horseback 1786 File:Gaspard Duché De Vancy - The costumes of the inhabitants of Manila - WGA06828.jpg|Inhabitants of Manila 1787 by
Gaspard Duché de Vancy File:Ravenet-Mestizos.jpg|Mestizos of Manila circa 1790s File:Man of the Island of Luzon 1820 by John Crawfurd.jpg|A Filipino in 1820 by John Crawfurd File:Spanish mestizo costume.jpg|Spanish Mestizo Filipinos by Jean Mallat de Basilan 1800's File:Damian domingo.png|
Damián Domingo, A mestizo de
Sangley soldier and artist. File:A Visayan native girl by Damian Domingo.jpg|A Visayan native girl by Damian Domingo. File:Mestizo de luto by José Honorato Lozano.jpg|"
Mestizo de luto" (A Native Filipino Mestizo) by
José Honorato Lozano File:Portrait of Filomena Asunción de Villafranca - Justiniano Asunción.jpg|Filomena Asunción de Villafranca by
Justiniano Asunción File:Indio A Caballo by José Honorato Lozano.jpg|Native riding a horse by José Honorato Lozano File:Filipina girl. 19th century.jpg|Filipina girl. 19th century File:Cuadrillero by José Honorato Lozano.jpg|Cuadrillero by José Honorato Lozano File:Domingo Roxas y Ureta.jpg|
Domíngo Róxas, early 1800's File:Gobernadorcillo de Naturales by José Honorato Lozano.jpg|A
Gobernadorcillo, mostly of Indio descent. Painting by José Honorato Lozano File:Soledad Francia by Antonio Malantic 1876 Philippines.jpg|Soledad Francia by Antonio Malantic 1876 Philippines File:Guardia de Vino in Philippines 1841.jpg|Vine Guard 1841 File:Philippine cock fighting 19th century.jpg|Filipinos cock fighting 19th century File:Man in traditional Filipino costume by Filipino school 1800's.jpg|Native
Principalía File:Infantry army uniform in the Philippines 1856.jpg|Infantry army unfiorm in the Philippines 1856 File:Ambrosio Bautista by Filipino painter Mariano Asuncion 1880s.jpg|Ambrosio Bautista by Filipino painter Mariano Asuncion File:Filipina woman 1859.jpg|Filipina woman 1859 File:A family belonging to the Principalia.JPG|Typical
costume of a
Principalía family
Barong tagalog and
Baro't saya. File:Filipino lawyer Don Narciso Padilla circa 1950s.jpg|lawyer Don Narciso Padilla circa 1950s. File:India A Caballo by José Honorato Lozano.jpg|Native woman riding a horse. File:A Minister of the Mayor of Manila 1830's.jpg|Minister of the Mayor of Manila 1830's File:Severina Ocampo de Arroyo painting by Filipino painter Simon Flores y de la Rosa.png|Severina Ocampo de Arroyo painting by Filipino painter Simon Flores y de la Rosa File:Native arsenal carpenter of Cavite Philippines 1800's.jpg|Native arsenal carpenter of Cavite File:Filipino painting Felipe Campomanes.jpg|Don Felipe Campomanes 1871 File:Native Filipino family 1800's.jpg|Native Filipino family File:Isabelo Tampinco photo.jpg|
Isabelo Tampinco File:Filipino Spanish mestizo family.webp|a
Mestizo de Español family ==Origins and genetic studies==