Chestnut

'' (sweet chestnut) Chestnut trees are of moderate growth rate (for the Chinese chestnut tree) to fast growth rate (for American and European species). to the giant of past American forests, C. dentata that could reach . Between these extremes are found the Japanese chestnut tree (C. crenata) at average; followed by the Chinese chestnut tree (C. mollissima) at about , then the European chestnut tree (C. sativa) around . The Chinese and more so the Japanese chestnut trees are both often multileadered and wide-spreading, Its bark is smooth when young, of a vinous maroon or red-brown color for the American chestnut, The flowers follow the leaves, appearing in late spring or early summer The ripe pollen carries a heavy, sweet odor The burrs are often paired or clustered on the branch Around the time the fruits reach maturity, the burrs turn yellow-brown and split open in two or four sections. They can remain on the tree longer than they hold the fruit, but more often achieve complete opening and release the fruits only after having fallen on the ground; opening is partly due to soil humidity. the industry calls this the "peel". Some varieties have consistently only one embryo per fruit (nut) or have only one large fruit per burr, well-rounded (no flat face). The name of varieties with these characteristics may start with "marron" American chestnuts are usually very small (around ), but sweet-tasting with easy-to-remove pellicles. Some Japanese varieties have very large nuts (around ), with typically difficult-to-remove pellicles. Chinese chestnut pellicles are usually easy to remove, and their sizes vary greatly according to the varieties, although usually smaller than the Japanese chestnut. both of which are also in the Fagaceae family. Brazil nuts, called "Brasil chestnuts" (castañas de Brasil in Spanish) or "chestnuts from Pará" (castanha-do-Pará in Portuguese) are also unrelated. ==Taxonomy==

Species Chestnuts belong to the family Fagaceae, which also includes oaks and beeches. The four main species groups are commonly known as American, European, Chinese, and Japanese chestnuts. The taxonomy of the American chestnuts is not completely resolved, particularly between the chinkapins (Castanea ozarkensis and Castanea pumila), which are sometimes considered to be the same species. Genetics have indicated the California native "golden chinkapin" (Chrysolepis chrysophylla) is worthy of inclusion in a different genus along with a species from Coastal China. There is also another chestnut, Castanea alabamensis, which may be its own species. Etymology The name "chestnut" is derived from an earlier English term "chesten nut", which descends from the Old French word chastain (Modern French, châtaigne). The French word in turn derives from Latin Castanea (also the scientific name of the tree), which traces to the Ancient Greek word κάστανον (sweet chestnut). A possible source of the Greek word is the ancient town of Casthanaea in Magnesia. Its location is at the modern village of Keramidi. The town probably took its name, though, from the trees growing around it. Still others take the name as coming from the Greek name of Sardis glans (Sardis acorn) – Sardis being the capital of Lydia, Asia Minor, from where the fruit had spread. The name is cited twice in the King James Version of the Bible. In one instance, Jacob puts peeled twigs in the water troughs to promote healthy offspring of his livestock. Although it may indicate another tree, it indicates the fruit was a local staple food in the early 17th century. These synonyms are or have been in use: Fagus Castanea (used by Linnaeus in first edition of Species Plantarum, 1753), Sardian nut, Jupiter's nut, husked nut, and Spanish chestnut (U.S.). == Ecology ==

The tree is noted for attracting wildlife. The nuts are an important food for jays, pigeons, wild boar, deer, and squirrels. American and Chinese chinquapins (C. pumila and C. henryi) have very small nuts that are an important source of food for wildlife. == Cultivation ==

History Europe and the Near East It has been a staple food in southern Europe, Turkey, and southwestern and eastern Asia for millennia, largely replacing cereals where these would not grow well, if at all, in mountainous Mediterranean areas. Evidence of its cultivation by humans is found since around 2000 BC. Alexander the Great and the Romans planted chestnut trees across Europe while on their various campaigns. A Greek army is said to have survived their retreat from Asia Minor in 401–399 BC thanks to their stores of chestnuts. Ancient Greeks, such as Dioscorides and Galen, wrote of chestnuts to comment on their medicinal properties—and of the flatulence induced by eating too much of it. In 1802, an Italian agronomist said of Tuscany that "the fruit of the chestnut tree is practically the sole subsistence of our highlanders", while in 1879 it was said that it almost exclusively fed whole populations for half the year, as "a temporary but complete substitution for cereals". The Hundred Horse Chestnut in the chestnut forests on Mount Etna is the oldest living chestnut tree and is said to be even larger. Chestnut trees particularly flourish in the Mediterranean basin. In France, the marron glacé, a candied chestnut involving 16 different processes in a typically French cooking style, is always served at Christmas and New Year's time. Many people did not want to take chestnut bread as "bread" because chestnut flour does not rise. Some slandered chestnut products in such words as the bread which "gives a sallow complexion" written in 1770, or in 1841 "this kind of mortar which is called a soup". The last decades' worldwide renewal may have profited from the huge reforestation efforts started in the 1930s in the United States to establish varieties of C. sativa which may be resistant to chestnut blight, as well as to relieve the strain on cereal supplies. The main region in Italy for chestnut production is the Mugello region; in 1996, the European Community granted the fruit Protected Geographic Indication (equivalent to the French ''Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée'') status to the Mugello sweet chestnut. It is markedly sweet, peels easily, is not excessively floury or astringent, and has notes of vanilla, hazelnut, and, more subtly, fresh bread. It has no unpleasant aroma, such as yeast, fungus, mold, or paper, which sometimes occur with other chestnuts. The main regions in France for chestnut production are the départements of Ardèche, Var (Eastern Provence), Cévennes (Gard and Lozère départements) and the Lyon region. France annually produces over 1,000 metric tons, but still imports about 8,000 metric tons, mainly from Italy. In Portugal's archipelago of Madeira, chestnut liquor is a traditional beverage, and it is gaining popularity with the tourists and in continental Portugal. In Britain, pre-historic pollen records show that the species is an introduced, and not a native, tree. It is associated with sites of Roman-era occupation, but it was already established by that time. Boundary records compiled in the reign of King John showed the famous Tortworth Chestnut in South Gloucestershire was already a landmark; it was known by the name of "Great Chestnut of Tortworth" in the days of Stephen. This tree measured over in circumference at from the ground in 1720. Asia Always served as part of the New Year's menu in Japan, chestnuts represent both success and hard times—mastery and strength. and the Chinese chestnut (C. mollissima) possibly for 2,000 to 6,000 years. In South Korea, roasted chestnuts (gunbam) are a popular winter snack, and serve as a symbol of abundance in ancestral rituals. Roasted chestnuts are also included in folk songs of Korea, which include "Gunbam Taryeong", a song that celebrates chestnuts, as well as "Jeongseokga", a song from the Goryeo period. Gongju, one of Baekje's former capitals, is renowned for its chestnuts, with an annual chestnut festival that takes place in the winter. In the Samgukji (Records Of The Three Kingdoms), a book that was compiled during the Jin dynasty about the Three Kingdoms, chestnuts are used in the description of Mahan, the former land of Baekje. In the Philippines, the endemic talakatak or Philippine chestnut (Castanopsis philippinensis) is not cultivated commercially, though its nuts are harvested from the wild and consumed locally. Imported chestnuts (known as kastanyas in Tagalog, from Spanish castañas) are traditionally sold as street food in the Philippines during the Christmas season. North America Native Americans were eating the American chestnut species, mainly C. dentata and some others, long before European immigrants introduced their stock to America, and before the arrival of chestnut blight. In 1911, the food book ''The Grocer's Encyclopedia'' noted that a cannery in Holland included in its "vegetables-and-meat" ready-cooked combinations, a "chestnuts and sausages" casserole beside the more classic "beef and onions" and "green peas and veal". This celebrated the chestnut culture that would bring whole villages out in the woods for three weeks each autumn (and keep them busy all winter), and deplored the lack of food diversity in the United States's shop shelves. only a few clumps of trees remained in Michigan, Wisconsin, California, and the Pacific Northwest. Today, they only survive as single trees separated from any others (very rare), and as living stumps, or "stools", with only a few growing enough shoots to produce seeds shortly before dying. This is just enough to preserve the genetic material used to engineer an American chestnut tree with the minimal necessary genetic input from any of the disease-immune Asiatic species. Efforts started in the 1930s are still ongoing to repopulate the country with these trees, in Massachusetts and many places elsewhere in the United States. In the 1970s, geneticist Charles Burnham began back-breeding Asian chestnut into American chestnut populations to confer blight resistance with the minimum difference in genes. In the 1950s, the Dunstan chestnut was developed in Greensboro, N.C., and constitutes the majority of blight-free chestnuts produced in the United States annually. It is so named because it was developed by Robert T. Dunstan Today, the demand for the nut outstrips supply. The United States imported 4,056 metric tons of European in-shell chestnuts worth $10 million in 2007. The U.S. chestnut industry is in its infancy, producing less than 1% of total world production. Since the mid-20th century, most of the US imports are from Southern Italy, with the large, meaty, and richly flavored Sicilian chestnuts being considered among the best quality for bulk sale and supermarket retail. Some imports come from Portugal and France. The next two largest sources of imports are China and South Korea. A study of the sector in 2005 found that U.S. producers are mainly part-timers diversifying an existing agricultural business, or hobbyists. Another recent study indicates that investment in a new plantation takes 13 years to break even, at least within the current Australian market. Starting a small-scale operation requires a relatively low initial investment; this is a factor in the small size of the present production operations, with half of them being between . Another determining factor in the small productivity of the sector is that most orchards have been created less than 10 years ago, so have young trees which are as now barely entering commercial production. Considering the additional advantage that chestnut trees can be easily grown organically, to the Royal Horticultural Society's H6 hardiness rating, to -20 °C. Chestnut is hardy to USDA zone 5, which is lower in average minimal temperature than London in zone 9. The young growth in spring, even on mature plants, however, is frost-tender; while the famous Hundred Horse Chestnut on Mount Etna stands at 1200 metres. They can tolerate maritime exposure, although growth is reduced. where they can be left in situ for one to two years before being planted in their permanent positions, so at least two trees are needed for pollination. Although Castanea can grow in very acidic soil, The butt of the tree is sometimes painted with white paint to protect the tree from sunburn until it has developed enough canopy. Preservation In addition to being consumed fresh, chestnuts can also be canned, pureed, or preserved in sugar or syrup (marrons glacés). Shelled and cooked nuts should be covered, refrigerated, and used within 3–4 days. Cooked chestnuts, either whole, chopped, or pureed, may be frozen in an airtight container and held up to 9 months. Because of their high water content, transpiration rates, and consequent loss weight, the nuts react as fresh fruits (not as nuts). They should be kept cool at all times, including in shops when on display for sale. Insects • Dryocosmus kuriphilus, the oriental chestnut gall wasp, is native to China, but is an invasive pest elsewhere. It attacks and destroys the chestnut fruit. It is considered the world's worst pest of chestnuts. • The larvae of the polyfag moth (Phytomyza horticola) species are among those that do most damage to shoots and foliage. • The most frequently occurring pests are the winter moth (Operophtera brumata) and the mottled umber moth (Erannis defoliaria). • The chestnut weevil (Curculio elephas) most often damages the fruits. In Hungary, it swarms in chestnut orchards around August 20, particularly strongly around noon and in sunny weather. The eggs are laid into the cupules or around the peduncle joints. The larvae feed on the nuts and leave only nutchips and excrement within. While the chestnuts ripen, the larvae retreat into the ground after having chewed their way out of the nuts. The following July, they turn into pupae. The larvae of the chestnut weevil can only chew their way out of a fallen nut, so breeding occurs mostly where chestnuts lie on the ground for a sufficient length of time, or where the trees produce many small fruits which remain behind at the harvest. Timing the harvests to pick up the chestnuts as soon as they fall reduces the numbers of the overwintering larvae. Regular soil work is also unfavourable to its life habits. Small grafts are sprayed with chemicals. A warm, aerosol-based protection has been developed for older trees, by Sifter and Bürgés in 1971. Planting chestnut orchards beside turkey oak forests is not advised, because both trees are susceptible to the chestnut weevil (which also uses the turkey oak acorn to develop), and the turkey oak trees can pass it on to the chestnut trees. • Ink disease also appears in a number of other plants. The disease attacks the phloem tissue and the cambium of the roots and root collars about 10–20 cm above ground. Wet rot settles in as a result. It was named after the ink-black color of the tannic acid becoming (oxidized) after seeping out, but that symptom is not a characteristic of only that disease. The same ink-black color can appear following other types of decays and mechanical injuries that make liquids seep through; these liquids can also oxidize after contact with air. Moreover, with some phytophthoric diseases, no tannic acid is generated. With the ink disease, the leaves turn yellow and later fall off; the fruits remain small, and the nuts prematurely drop out of the burrs. These dry and remain on the trees throughout winter. In acute cases, root decay makes the trees dry out and wither away. • Phytophthora disease is the longest-known chestnut tree disease leading to tree death. Of the two main pathogens for this disease, the one in European chestnuts is known since 1971 to be Phytophthora cambivora. Phytophthora cinnamomi was discovered in chestnut trees in the United States in 1932. Both trigger similar symptoms. Since then, it has also been shown to occur in most European chestnut-growing countries. Differentiating between the two pathogens is difficult. Chemicals seem of little effectiveness. Many countries impose strict prophylactic rules to prevent the spread of the disease. • Chestnut canker can be caused by fungi of genus Dendrostoma. Coppicing Most chestnut wood production is done by coppice systems, cut on a 12-year rotation to provide small timber which does not split as badly as large logs. C. dentata seedlings in Ohio reforestation efforts are best achieved by planting them in places with little or no arboreous land cover, because of the need for light. Production In 2020, world production of cultivated chestnuts was 2,322 tonnes, led by China with 75% of the total (table). ==Uses==

Nutrition Chestnuts depart from the norm for culinary nuts, as they have little protein or fat; their calories come chiefly from carbohydrates. Fresh chestnut fruits provide about of food energy per 100 g of edible parts, which is much lower than walnuts, almonds, other nuts, and dried fruit (about per 100 g). When chestnuts are just starting to ripen, the fruits are mostly starch and are firm under finger pressure from the high water content. As the chestnuts ripen, the starch is slowly converted into sugars, and moisture content decreases. Upon pressing the ripe chestnut, a slight "give" can be felt; the hull is not so tense, and space occurs between the flesh of the fruit and it. Raw chestnuts are 60% water and contain 44 grams of carbohydrates, 2 grams of protein, one gram of fat, supplying 200 calories in a 100-gram reference amount (table). Chestnuts provide some B vitamins and dietary minerals in significant content (table). Their carbohydrate content compares with that of wheat and rice. Another method of eating the fruit involves roasting, which does not require peeling. Roasting requires scoring the fruit beforehand to prevent explosion of the fruit due to expansion. Once cooked, its texture is slightly similar to that of a baked potato, with a delicate, sweet, and nutty flavour. This method of preparation is popular in many countries, where the scored chestnuts may be cooked mixed with a little sugar. Chestnuts can be dried and milled into flour, which can then be used to prepare breads, cakes, pies, pancakes, pastas, polenta In Corsica, the flour is fried into doughnut-like fritters called fritelli and made into necci, pattoni, , and cialdi. The flour can be light beige like that from Castagniccia, or darker in other regions. of the 19th century with the image of Catalan Castanyera, the traditional seller of chestnuts. In Spain, on 31 October on the eve of the All Saints' Day, Catalonia celebrates la castanyada, a festivity that consists of eating chestnuts, panellets, sweet potatoes and muscatell. On November, in the regions of Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria and other Northern provinces and Portugal, the Magosto is celebrated. In Hungarian cuisine, cooked chestnuts are puréed, mixed with sugar (and usually rum), forced through a ricer, and topped with whipped cream to make a dessert called gesztenyepüré (chestnut purée). In Swiss cuisine, a similar dish made with kirsch and butter is called vermicelles. A French version is known as "Mont Blanc". A fine granular sugar can be obtained from the fermentation of the juice, as well as a beer; the roasted fruit provides a coffee substitute. The continental blockade following shortly after (1806–1814) increased the research into developing chestnuts as a source of sugar, but Napoleon chose beets instead. Sweet chestnuts are not easy to peel when cold. One kilogram of untainted chestnuts yields about 700 g of shelled chestnuts. and saves the need for other protection treatment. It also corrodes iron slowly, although copper, brass, or stainless metals are not affected. Of note, the famous 18th-century "berles" in the French Cévennes are cupboards cut directly from the hollowed trunk. Fuel Dry, chestnut firewood is best burned in a closed log-burner, because of its tendency to spit when on an open fire. The bark imparts a dark color to the tannin, and has a higher sugar content, which increases the percentage of soluble non-tans, or impurities, in the extract; so it was not employed in this use. Chestnut tannin is obtained by hot-water extraction of chipped wood. It is an ellagic tannin and its main constituents are identified by castalagin (14.2%) and vescalagin (16.2%).It has a naturally low pH value, relatively low salts content, and high acids content. This determines its astringency and its capability to fix raw hides. These properties make chestnut extract especially suitable for the tanning of heavy hides and to produce leather soles for high-quality shoes in particular. It is possible to obtain a leather with high yield in weight, which is compact, firm, flexible, and waterproof. Chestnut-tanned leathers are elastic, lightfast, resistant to traction and abrasion, and have warm color. Chestnut tannin is one of the pyrogallol class of tannins (also known as hydrolysable tannin). As it tends to give a brownish tone to the leather, it is most often used in combination with quebracho, mimosa, tara, myrabolans, and valonia. Hydrolysable chestnut tannins can be used for partial phenol substitution in phenolic resin adhesives production and also for direct use as resin. Chestnut buds have been listed as one of the 38 substances used to prepare Bach flower remedies, a kind of alternative medicine promoted for its effect on health. However, according to Cancer Research UK, "there is no scientific evidence to prove that flower remedies can control, cure or prevent any type of disease, including cancer". ==In culture==

• In the film based on the novel by E. M. Forster, Howards End, Mrs. Ruth Wilcox (Vanessa Redgrave) tells of her childhood home, where superstitious farmers would place pigs' teeth in the bark of the chestnut trees and then chew on this bark to ease toothaches. In the novel, the tree is actually a wych elm. • Under the Spreading Chestnut Tree is a set of variations, with fugue, for orchestra composed in 1939 by Jaromír Weinberger. • In Honoré de Balzac's novel Père Goriot, Vautrin states that Eugène de Rastignac's family is living off chestnuts; this symbolism is used to represent how impoverished Eugene's family is. • "The Christmas Song" famously mentions chestnuts in its opening line, and is commonly subtitled "Chestnuts Roasting on an Open Fire." Notable specimens • Hundred Horse Chestnut on Mount Etna, 57.9 m (190 ft) circumference in 1780, (64-meter circumference in 1883) • Tortworth Chestnut. 15.8-meter (52 ft) circumference in 1776, when it was described as "the largest tree in England" • Sacred Chestnut of Istán, circumference, estimated to be between 800 and 1,000 years old. ==See also==