Augustinianism , 1636–1638
Augustine of Hippo was a
Roman African,
philosopher and
bishop in the Catholic Church. He helped shape
Latin Christianity, and is viewed as one of the most important
Church Fathers in the Latin Church for his writings in the
Patristic Period. Among his works are
The City of God,
De doctrina Christiana, and
Confessions. In his youth he was drawn to
Manichaeism and later to
neoplatonism. After his baptism and conversion in 386, Augustine developed his own approach to philosophy and theology, accommodating a variety of methods and perspectives. Believing that the
grace of Christ was indispensable to human freedom, he helped formulate the doctrine of
original sin and made seminal contributions to the development of
just war theory. His thoughts profoundly influenced the medieval worldview. The segment of the church that adhered to the concept of the
Trinity as defined by the
Council of Nicaea and the
Council of Constantinople closely identified with Augustine's
On the Trinity When the
Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate, Augustine imagined the church as a spiritual
City of God, distinct from the material Earthly City. in his book
On the city of God against the pagans, often called
The City of God, Augustine declared its message to be spiritual rather than political. Christianity, he argued, should be concerned with the mystical, heavenly city, the
New Jerusalem, rather than with earthly politics.
The City of God presents human
history as a conflict between what Augustine calls the Earthly City (often colloquially referred to as the City of Man, but never by Augustine) and the City of God, a conflict that is destined to end in victory for the latter. The City of God is marked by people who forego earthly pleasure to dedicate themselves to the eternal truths of God, now revealed fully in the Christian faith. The Earthly City, on the other hand, consists of people who have immersed themselves in the cares and pleasures of the present, passing world. , 17th century For Augustine, the
Logos "took on flesh" in Christ, in whom the logos was present as in no other man. He strongly influenced
Early Medieval Christian Philosophy. Like other Church Fathers such as
Athenagoras,
Tertullian,
Clement of Alexandria and
Basil of Caesarea, Augustine "vigorously condemned the practice of induced
abortion", and although he disapproved of an abortion during any stage of pregnancy, he made a distinction between early abortions and later ones. He acknowledged the distinction between "formed" and "unformed" fetuses mentioned in the
Septuagint translation of , which is considered as wrong translation of the word "harm" from the original Hebrew text as "form" in the Greek Septuagint and based in Aristotelian distinction "between the fetus before and after its supposed 'vivification'", and did not classify as murder the abortion of an "unformed" fetus since he thought that it could not be said with certainty that the fetus had already received a soul. Augustine also used the term "
Catholic" to distinguish the "
true" church from heretical groups: In the Catholic Church, there are many other things which most justly keep me in her bosom. The consent of peoples and nations keeps me in the Church; so does her authority, inaugurated by miracles, nourished by hope, enlarged by love, established by age. The succession of priests keeps me, beginning from the very seat of the
Apostle Peter, to whom the Lord, after His resurrection, gave it in charge to feed His sheep (Jn 21:15–19), down to the present
episcopate. And so, lastly, does the very name of Catholic, which, not without reason, amid so many heresies, the Church has thus retained; so that, though all heretics wish to be called Catholics, yet when a stranger asks where the Catholic Church meets, no heretic will venture to point to his own chapel or house. Such then in number and importance are the precious ties belonging to the Christian name which keep a believer in the Catholic Church, as it is right they should. ...With you, there is none of these things to attract or keep me. ...No one shall move me from the faith which binds my mind with ties so many and so strong to the Christian religion. ...For my part, I should not believe the gospel except as moved by the authority of the Catholic Church. :— St. Augustine (354–430):
Against the Epistle of Manichaeus called Fundamental, chapter 4: Proofs of the Catholic Faith. (attributed) In both his philosophical and theological reasoning, Augustine was greatly influenced by
Stoicism,
Platonism and
Neoplatonism, particularly by the work of
Plotinus, author of the
Enneads, probably through the mediation of
Porphyry and
Victorinus (as
Pierre Hadot has argued). Although he later abandoned Neoplatonism, some ideas are still visible in his early writings. His early and influential writing on the
human will, a central topic in
ethics, would become a focus for later philosophers such as
Schopenhauer,
Kierkegaard, and
Nietzsche. He was also influenced by the works of
Virgil (known for his teaching on language), and
Cicero (known for his teaching on argument). In the East, his teachings are more disputed, and were notably attacked by
John Romanides. But other theologians and figures of the Eastern Orthodox Church have shown significant approbation of his writings, chiefly
Georges Florovsky. The most controversial doctrine associated with him, the filioque, was rejected by the Orthodox Church as heretical. Other disputed teachings include his views on original sin, the doctrine of grace, and
predestination. In the Orthodox Church his feast day is celebrated on 15 June. Historian
Diarmaid MacCulloch has written: "[Augustine's] impact on Western Christian thought can hardly be overstated; only his beloved example
Paul of Tarsus has been more influential, and Westerners have generally seen Paul through Augustine's eyes." In his autobiographical book
Milestones,
Pope Benedict XVI claims Augustine as one of the deepest influences in his thought.
Scholasticism Scholasticism is a method of critical
thought which dominated teaching by the
academics ("scholastics", or "schoolmen") of
medieval universities in Europe from about 1100 to 1700, The 13th and early 14th centuries are generally seen as the high period of scholasticism. The early 13th century witnessed the culmination of the
recovery of Greek philosophy. Schools of translation grew up in Italy and Sicily, and eventually in the rest of Europe. Powerful Norman kings gathered men of knowledge from Italy and other areas into their courts as a sign of their prestige.
William of Moerbeke's translations and editions of Greek philosophical texts in the middle half of the thirteenth century helped form a clearer picture of Greek philosophy, particularly of Aristotle, than was given by the Arabic versions on which they had previously relied.
Edward Grant writes: "Not only was the structure of the Arabic language radically different from that of Latin, but some Arabic versions had been derived from earlier Syriac translations and were thus twice removed from the original Greek text. Word-for-word translations of such Arabic texts could produce tortured readings. By contrast, the structural closeness of Latin to Greek permitted literal, but intelligible, word-for-word translations."
Universities developed in the large cities of Europe during this period, and rival clerical orders within the church began to battle for political and intellectual control over these centers of educational life. The two main orders founded in this period were the
Franciscans and the
Dominicans. The Franciscans were founded by
Francis of Assisi in 1209. Their leader in the middle of the century was
Bonaventure, a traditionalist who defended the theology of
Augustine and the philosophy of
Plato, incorporating only a little of
Aristotle in with the more neoplatonist elements. Following Anselm, Bonaventure supposed that reason can only discover truth when philosophy is illuminated by religious faith. Other important Franciscan scholastics were
Duns Scotus,
Peter Auriol and
William of Ockham.
Thomism '' by
Gentile da Fabriano (c. 1400) showing Thomas Aquinas '' by
Benozzo Gozzoli (1420–97) Saint
Thomas Aquinas, an
Italian Dominican friar,
philosopher and
priest, was immensely influential in the tradition of scholasticism, within which he is also known as the
Doctor Angelicus and the
Doctor Communis. Aquinas emphasized that "
Synderesis is said to be the law of our mind, because it is a habit containing the precepts of the natural law, which are the first principles of human actions." According to Aquinas "…all acts of virtue are prescribed by the natural law, since each one's reason naturally dictates to him to act virtuously. But if we speak of virtuous acts, considered in themselves, i.e., in their proper species, not all virtuous acts are prescribed by the natural law for many things are done virtuously to which nature does not incline at first; but that, through the inquiry of reason, have been found by men to be conducive to well living." Therefore, we must determine if we are speaking of virtuous acts as under the aspect of virtuous or as an act in its species. Thomas defined the four
cardinal virtues as
prudence,
temperance,
justice, and
fortitude. The cardinal virtues are natural and revealed in nature, and they are binding on everyone. There are, however, three
theological virtues:
faith,
hope, and
charity. Thomas also describes the virtues as imperfect (incomplete) and perfect (complete) virtues. A perfect virtue is any virtue with charity, which completes a cardinal virtue. A non-Christian can display courage, but it would be courage with temperance. A Christian would display courage with charity. These are somewhat supernatural and are distinct from other virtues in their object, namely, God: Thomas Aquinas wrote: "[Greed] is a sin against God, just as all mortal sins, in as much as man condemns things eternal for the sake of temporal things." Aquinas also contributed to
economic thought as an aspect of ethics and justice. He dealt with the concept of a
just price, normally its market price or a regulated price sufficient to cover seller
costs of production. He argued it was immoral for sellers to raise their prices simply because buyers were in pressing need for a product. Aquinas later expanded his argument to oppose any unfair earnings made in trade, basing the argument on the
Golden Rule. The Christian should "do unto others as you would have them do unto you", meaning he should trade value for value. Aquinas believed that it was specifically immoral to raise prices because a particular buyer had an urgent need for what was being sold and could be persuaded to pay a higher price because of local conditions: :If someone would be greatly helped by something belonging to someone else, and the seller not similarly harmed by losing it, the seller must not sell for a higher price: because the usefulness that goes to the buyer comes not from the seller, but from the buyer's needy condition: no one ought to sell something that doesn't belong to him. ::—
Summa Theologiae, 2-2, q. 77, art. 1 Aquinas would therefore condemn practices such as raising the price of building supplies in the wake of a
natural disaster. Increased demand caused by the destruction of existing buildings does not add to a seller's costs, so to take advantage of buyers' increased willingness to pay constituted a species of
fraud in Aquinas's view.
Five Ways In his and , Aquinas laid out five arguments for the
existence of God, known as the ("five ways"). He also enumerated five divine qualities, all
framed as negatives.
Impact Aquinas shifted Scholasticism away from
neoplatonism and towards
Aristotle. The ensuing school of thought, through its influence on Latin Christianity and the ethics of the Catholic school, is one of the most influential philosophies of all time, also significant due to the number of people living by its teachings. In theology, his
Summa Theologica is one of the most influential documents in
medieval theology and continued into the 20th century to be the central point of reference for the philosophy and theology of Latin Christianity. In the 1914 encyclical
Doctoris Angelici,
Pope Pius X cautioned that the teachings of the Catholic Church cannot be understood without the basic philosophical underpinnings of Aquinas' major theses: The
Second Vatican Council described Aquinas' system as the "Perennial Philosophy".
Actus purus Actus purus is the absolute perfection of
God. According to Scholasticism, created beings have
potentiality—that is not actuality, imperfections as well as perfection. Only God is simultaneously all that He can be, infinitely real and infinitely perfect: 'I am who I am' (
Exodus ). His attributes or His operations are really identical with His
essence, and His essence necessitates His
existence.
Lack of essence-energies distinction Later, the Eastern Orthodox ascetic and archbishop of Thessaloniki, (Saint)
Gregory Palamas argued in defense of
hesychast spirituality, the
uncreated character of the light of the Transfiguration, and the
distinction between God's essence and energies. His teaching unfolded over the course of three major controversies, (1) with the Italo-Greek
Barlaam between 1336 and 1341, (2) with the monk
Gregory Akindynos between 1341 and 1347, and (3) with the philosopher
Gregoras, from 1348 to 1355. His theological contributions are sometimes referred to as
Palamism, and his followers as Palamites. Historically Latin Christianity has tended to reject Palamism, especially the essence-energies distinction, some times characterizing it as a heretical introduction of an unacceptable division in the Trinity and suggestive of
polytheism. Further, the associated practice of
hesychasm used to achieve
theosis was characterized as "magic". More recently, some Roman Catholic thinkers have taken a positive view of Palamas's teachings, including the essence-energies distinction, arguing that it does not represent an insurmountable theological division between Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy, and his feast day as a saint is celebrated by some
Byzantine Catholic churches in communion with Rome. The rejection of Palamism by the West and by those in the East who favoured union with the West (the "Latinophrones"), actually contributed to its acceptance in the East, according to Martin Jugie, who adds: "Very soon Latinism and Antipalamism, in the minds of many, would come to be seen as one and the same thing".
Filioque Filioque is a Latin term added to the original
Nicene Creed, and which has been the subject of great controversy between Eastern and Western Christianity. It is not in the original text of the Creed, attributed to the
First Council of Constantinople (381), the
second ecumenical council, which says that the
Holy Spirit proceeds "from the
Father", without additions of any kind, such as "and the Son" or "alone". The phrase
Filioque first appears as an anti-
Arian interpolation in the Creed at the
Third Council of Toledo (589), at which
Visigothic Spain renounced
Arianism, accepting Catholic Christianity. The addition was confirmed by subsequent local councils in Toledo and soon spread throughout the West, not only in Spain but also in the kingdom of the Franks, who had adopted the Catholic faith in 496, and in England, where the
Council of Hatfield imposed it in 680 as a response to
Monothelitism. However, it was not adopted in Rome. In the late 6th century, some Latin churches added the words "and from the Son" (
Filioque) to the description of the procession of the Holy Spirit, in what many Eastern Orthodox Christians have at a later stage argued is a violation of Canon VII of the
Council of Ephesus, since the words were not included in the text by either the
First Council of Nicaea or that of Constantinople. This was incorporated into the liturgical practice of Rome in 1014, but was rejected by Eastern Christianity. Whether that term
Filioque is included, as well as how it is translated and understood, can have important implications for how one understands the doctrine of the
Trinity, which is central to the majority of Christian churches. For some, the term implies a serious underestimation of
God the Father's role in the Trinity; for others, denial of what it expresses implies a serious underestimation of the role of
God the Son in the Trinity. The
Filioque phrase has been included in the Creed throughout all the Latin liturgical rites except where
Greek is used in the liturgy, although it was never adopted by Eastern Catholic Churches.
Purgatory Another doctrine of Latin Christianity is
purgatory, about which Latin Christianity holds that "all who die in God's grace and friendship but still imperfectly purified" undergo the process of purification which the Catholic Church calls purgatory, "so as to achieve the holiness necessary to enter the joy of
heaven". It has formulated this doctrine by reference to biblical verses that speak of purifying fire ( and ) and to the mention by Jesus of forgiveness in the age to come (). It bases its teaching also on the practice of praying for the dead in use within the church ever since the church began and which is mentioned even earlier in 2 Macc 12:46. The idea of purgatory has roots that date back into antiquity. A sort of proto-purgatory called the "celestial
Hades" appears in the writings of Plato and Heraclides Ponticus and in many other pagan writers. This concept is distinguished from the Hades of the underworld described in the works of Homer and Hesiod. In contrast, the celestial Hades was understood as an intermediary place where souls spent an undetermined time after death before either moving on to a higher level of existence or being reincarnated back on earth. Its exact location varied from author to author. Heraclides of Pontus thought it was in the Milky Way; the Academicians, the
Stoics, Cicero,
Virgil,
Plutarch, the
Hermetical writings situated it between the Moon and the Earth or around the Moon; while Numenius and the Latin Neoplatonists thought it was located between the sphere of the fixed stars and the Earth. Perhaps under the influence of Hellenistic thought, the intermediate state entered Jewish religious thought in the last centuries before Christ. In Maccabees, we find the practice of prayer for the dead with a view to their after life purification,
a practice accepted by some Christians. The same practice appears in other traditions, such as the medieval Chinese
Buddhist practice of making offerings on behalf of the dead, who are said to suffer numerous trials. Among other reasons, Western Catholic teaching of purgatory is based on the pre-Christian (Judaic) practice of
prayers for the dead. Specific examples of belief in a purification after death and of the communion of the living with the dead through prayer are found in many of the
Church Fathers.
Irenaeus () mentioned an abode where the souls of the dead remained until the universal judgment, a process that has been described as one which "contains the concept of ... purgatory". Both
Clement of Alexandria () and his pupil
Origen of Alexandria () developed a view of purification after death; this view drew upon the notion that fire is a divine instrument from the
Old Testament, and understood this in the context of
New Testament teachings such as
baptism by fire, from the Gospels, and a purificatory trial after death, from
St. Paul. Origen, in arguing against
soul sleep, stated that the souls of the elect immediately entered paradise unless not yet purified, in which case they passed into a state of punishment, a penal fire, which is to be conceived as a place of purification. For both Clement and Origen, the fire was neither a material thing nor a metaphor, but a "spiritual fire". The early Latin author
Tertullian () also articulated a view of purification after death. In Tertullian's understanding of the afterlife, the souls of
martyrs entered directly into eternal blessedness, whereas the rest entered a generic realm of the dead. There the wicked suffered a foretaste of their eternal punishments, Later examples, wherein further elaborations are articulated, include
St. Cyprian (d. 258),
St. John Chrysostom (), and
St. Augustine (354–430), among others.
Pope Gregory the Great's
Dialogues, written in the late 6th century, evidence a development in the understanding of the afterlife distinctive of the direction that Latin
Christendom would take: As for certain lesser faults, we must believe that, before the Final Judgment, there is a purifying fire. He who is truth says that whoever utters blasphemy against the Holy Spirit will be pardoned neither in this age nor in the
age to come. From this sentence we understand that certain offenses can be forgiven in this age, but certain others in the age to come.
Speculations and imaginings about purgatory Some Catholic saints and theologians have had sometimes conflicting ideas about purgatory beyond those adopted by the Catholic Church, reflecting or contributing to the popular image, which includes the notions of purification by actual fire, in a determined place and for a precise length of time.
Paul J. Griffiths notes: "Recent Catholic thought on purgatory typically preserves the essentials of the basic doctrine while also offering second-hand speculative interpretations of these elements." Thus
Joseph Ratzinger wrote: "Purgatory is not, as
Tertullian thought, some kind of supra-worldly concentration camp where man is forced to undergo punishment in a more or less arbitrary fashion. Rather it is the inwardly necessary process of transformation in which a person becomes capable of Christ, capable of God, and thus capable of unity with the whole communion of saints." In
Theological Studies, John E. Thiel argued that "purgatory virtually disappeared from Catholic belief and practice since Vatican II" because it has been based on "a competitive spirituality, gravitating around the religious vocation of ascetics from the late Middle Ages". "The birth of purgatory negotiated the eschatological anxiety of the laity. [...] In a manner similar to the ascetic's lifelong lengthening of the temporal field of competition with the martyr, belief in purgatory lengthened the layperson's temporal field of competition with the ascetic." The speculations and popular imaginings that, especially in late medieval times, were common in the Western or Latin Church have not necessarily found acceptance in the
Eastern Catholic Churches, of which there are 23 in
full communion with the pope. Some have explicitly rejected the notions of punishment by fire in a particular place that are prominent in the popular picture of purgatory. The representatives of the
Eastern Orthodox Church at the
Council of Florence argued against these notions, while declaring that they do hold that there is a cleansing after death of the souls of the saved and that these are assisted by the prayers of the living: "If souls depart from this life in faith and charity but marked with some defilements, whether unrepented minor ones or major ones repented of but without having yet borne the fruits of repentance, we believe that within reason they are purified of those faults, but not by some purifying fire and particular punishments in some place." The definition of purgatory adopted by that council excluded the two notions with which the Orthodox disagreed and mentioned only the two points that, they said, were part of their faith also. Accordingly, the agreement, known as the
Union of Brest, that formalized the admission of the
Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church into the full
communion of the Roman Catholic Church stated: "We shall not debate about purgatory, but we entrust ourselves to the teaching of the Holy Church".
Mary Magdalene of Bethany In the medieval Western tradition,
Mary of Bethany the sister of
Lazarus was identified as
Mary Magdalene perhaps in large part because of a
homily given by Pope Gregory the Great in which he taught about several women in the
New Testament as though they were the same person. This led to a conflation of Mary of Bethany with Mary Magdalene as well as with another woman (besides Mary of Bethany who anointed Jesus), the woman caught in adultery. Eastern Christianity never adopted this identification. In his article in the 1910
Catholic Encyclopedia,
Hugh Pope stated, "The
Greek Fathers, as a whole, distinguish the three persons: the 'sinner' of ; the sister of Martha and Lazarus, and ; and Mary Magdalen. French scholar Victor Saxer dates the identification of Mary Magdalene as a prostitute, and as Mary of Bethany, to a sermon by Pope Gregory the Great on September 21, AD 591, where he seemed to combine the actions of three women mentioned in the New Testament and also identified an unnamed woman as Mary Magdalene. In another sermon, Gregory specifically identified Mary Magdalene as the sister of Martha mentioned in Luke 10. But according to a view expressed more recently by theologian Jane Schaberg, Gregory only put the final touch to a legend that already existed before him. Latin Christianity's identification of Mary Magdalene and Mary of Bethany was reflected in the arrangement of the
General Roman Calendar until this was altered in 1969, reflecting the fact that by then the common interpretation in the Catholic Church was that Mary of Bethany, Mary Magdalene and the sinful woman who anointed the feet of Jesus were three distinct women.
Original sin The
Catechism of the Catholic Church says: By his sin
Adam, as the first man, lost the original holiness and justice he had received from God, not only for himself but for all humans. Adam and
Eve transmitted to their descendants human nature wounded by their own first sin and hence deprived of original holiness and justice; this deprivation is called "original sin". As a result of original sin, human nature is weakened in its powers, subject to ignorance, suffering and the domination of death, and inclined to sin (this inclination is called "concupiscence"). 's painting of the sin of Adam and Eve from the
Sistine Chapel ceiling The concept of original sin was first alluded to in the 2nd century by St
Irenaeus,
Bishop of Lyon in his controversy with certain
dualist Gnostics. Other church fathers such as
Augustine also shaped and developed the doctrine, seeing it as based on the New Testament teaching of
Paul the Apostle (
Romans and
1 Corinthians ) and the
Old Testament verse of
Psalm .
Tertullian,
Cyprian,
Ambrose and
Ambrosiaster considered that humanity shares in Adam's sin, transmitted by human generation.
Augustine's formulation of original sin after AD 412 was popular among
Protestant reformers, such as
Martin Luther and
John Calvin, who equated original sin with
concupiscence (or "hurtful desire"), affirming that it persisted even after
baptism and completely destroyed freedom to do good. Before 412, Augustine said that free will was weakened but not destroyed by original sin. Modern Calvinism holds the later
Augustinian soteriology view. The
Jansenist movement, which the Catholic Church declared to be heretical, also maintained that original sin destroyed
freedom of will. Instead the Western Catholic Church declares: "Baptism, by imparting the life of
Christ's grace, erases original sin and turns a man back towards God, but the consequences for nature, weakened and inclined to evil, persist in man and summon him to spiritual battle." "Weakened and diminished by Adam's fall, free will is yet not destroyed in the race."
St. Anselm says: "The sin of Adam was one thing but the sin of children at their birth is quite another, the former was the cause, the latter is the effect." In a child, original sin is distinct from the fault of Adam, it is one of its effects. The effects of Adam's sin according to the Catholic Encyclopedia are: • Death and Suffering: "One man has transmitted to the whole human race not only the death of the body, which is the punishment of sin, but even sin itself, which is the death of the soul." • Concupiscence or Inclination to sin. Baptism erases original sin but the inclination to sin remains. • The absence of sanctifying grace in the new-born child is also an effect of the first sin, for Adam, having received holiness and justice from God, lost it not only for himself but also for us. Baptism confers original sanctifying grace, lost through the Adam's sin, thus eliminating original sin and any personal sin. Eastern Catholics and Eastern Christianity, in general, do not have the same theology of
the Fall and original sin as Latin Catholics. But since Vatican II there has been development in Catholic thinking. Some warn against taking Genesis 3 too literally. They take into account that "God had the church in mind before the foundation of the world" (as in Ephesians 1:4). as also in 2 Timothy 1:9: ". . . his own purpose and grace, which was given us in Christ Jesus
before the world began." And
Pope Benedict XVI in his book
In the Beginning ... referred to the term "original sin" as "misleading and unprecise". Benedict does not require a literal interpretation of Genesis, or of the origin or evil, but writes: "How was this possible, how did it happen? This remains obscure. ...Evil remains mysterious. It has been presented in great images, as does chapter 3 of Genesis, with the vision of two trees, of the serpent, of sinful man."
Immaculate Conception The
Immaculate Conception is the
conception of the
Blessed Virgin Mary free from original sin by virtue of the merits of her son
Jesus. Although the belief has been widely held since
Late Antiquity, the doctrine was
dogmatically defined in the Catholic Church only in 1854 when
Pope Pius IX declared it
ex cathedra, i.e., using papal infallibility, in his
papal bull Ineffabilis Deus. It is admitted that the doctrine as defined by Pius IX was not explicitly noted before the 12th century. It is also agreed that "no direct or categorical and stringent proof of the dogma can be brought forward from
Scripture". But it is claimed that the doctrine is implicitly contained in the teaching of the Fathers. Their expressions on the subject of the sinlessness of Mary are, it is pointed out, so ample and so absolute that they must be taken to include original sin as well as actual. Thus in the first five centuries, such epithets as "in every respect holy", "in all things unstained", "super-innocent", and "singularly holy" are applied to her; she is compared to Eve before the fall, as ancestress of a redeemed people; she is "the earth before it was accursed". The well-known words of St.
Augustine (d. 430) may be cited: "As regards the mother of God," he says, "I will not allow any question whatever of sin." It is true that he is here speaking directly of actual or personal sin. But his argument is that all men are sinners; that they are so through original depravity; that this original depravity may be overcome by the grace of God, and he adds that he does not know but that Mary may have had sufficient grace to overcome sin "of every sort" (
omni ex parte). The theological underpinnings of Immaculate Conception had been the subject of debate during the
Middle Ages with opposition provided by figures such as Saint
Thomas Aquinas, a Dominican. However, supportive arguments by Franciscans
William of Ware and
Pelbartus Ladislaus of Temesvár, and general belief among Catholics, made the doctrine more acceptable so that the
Council of Basel supported it in the 15th century, but the
Council of Trent sidestepped the question.
Pope Sixtus IV, a Franciscan, had tried to pacify the situation by forbidding either side to criticize the other, and placed the feast of the Immaculate Conception on the
Roman Calendar in 1477, but
Pope Pius V, a Dominican, changed it to the feast of the Conception of Mary.
Clement XI made the feast universal in 1708, but still did not call it the feast of the Immaculate Conception. Popular and theological support for the concept continued to grow and by the 18th century it was widely depicted in art.
Duns Scotus The
Blessed John Duns Scotus (d. 1308), a
Friar Minor like Saint Bonaventure, argued, that from a rational point of view it was certainly as little derogatory to the merits of Christ to assert that Mary was by him preserved from all taint of sin, as to say that she first contracted it and then was delivered. The arguments of Scotus, combined with a better acquaintance with the language of the early Fathers, gradually prevailed in the schools of the Western Church. In 1387 the university of Paris strongly condemned the opposite view. Scotus's argument appears in
Pope Pius IX's 1854 declaration of the
dogma of the Immaculate Conception, "at the first moment of Her conception, Mary was preserved free from the stain of original sin, in view of the merits of Jesus Christ." Scotus's position was hailed as "a correct expression of the faith of the Apostles." The definition concerns original sin only, and it makes no declaration about the church's belief that the Blessed Virgin was sinless in the sense of freedom from actual or personal sin. Ludwig Ott writes in his book
Fundamentals of Catholic Dogma that "the fact of her death is almost generally accepted by the Fathers and Theologians, and is expressly affirmed in the Liturgy of the Church", to which he adds a number of helpful citations. He concludes: "for Mary, death, in consequence of her freedom from
original sin and from personal sin, was not a consequence of punishment of sin. However, it seems fitting that Mary's body, which was by nature mortal, should be, in conformity with that of her
Divine Son, subject to the general law of death". '' (1516–1518) The point of her bodily death has not been infallibly defined by any pope. Many Catholics believe that she did not die at all, but was assumed directly into Heaven. The dogmatic definition within the Apostolic Constitution which, according to Roman Catholic dogma, infallibly proclaims the doctrine of the Assumption leaves open the question of whether, in connection with her departure, Mary underwent bodily death. It does not dogmatically define the point one way or the other, as shown by the words "having completed the course of her earthly life". Before the dogmatic definition in
Deiparae Virginis Mariae Pope Pius XII sought the opinion of Catholic Bishops. A large number of them pointed to the
Book of Genesis (
3:15) as scriptural support for the dogma. In (item 39) Pius XII referred to the "struggle against the infernal foe" as in Genesis 3:15 and to "complete victory over the sin and death" as in the
Letters of Paul as a scriptural basis for the dogmatic definition, Mary being assumed to heaven as in
1 Corinthians 15:54: "then shall come to pass the saying that is written, Death is swallowed up in victory".
Assumption vs. Dormition The Western Feast of the Assumption is celebrated on 15 August, and the Eastern Orthodox and
Greek Catholics celebrate the
Dormition of the Mother of God (or Dormition of the
Theotokos, the falling asleep of the Mother of God) on the same date, preceded by a 14-day
fast period. Eastern Christians believe that Mary died a natural death, that her soul was received by Christ upon death, and that her body was resurrected on the third day after her death and that she was taken up into heaven bodily in anticipation of the general
resurrection. Her tomb was found empty on the third day. , 1392 Many Catholics also believe that Mary first died before being assumed, but they believe that she was miraculously resurrected before being assumed. Others believe she was assumed bodily into Heaven without first dying. Either understanding may be legitimately held by Catholics, with
Eastern Catholics observing the Feast as the Dormition. Many theologians note by way of comparison that in the Catholic Church, the Assumption is dogmatically defined, while in the Eastern Orthodox tradition, the Dormition is less dogmatically than liturgically and mystically defined. Such differences spring from a larger pattern in the two traditions, wherein Catholic teachings are often dogmatically and authoritatively defined—in part because of the more centralized structure of the Catholic Church—while in Eastern Orthodoxy, many doctrines are less authoritative.
Ancient of Days '', watercolor etching from 1794 by
William Blake Ancient of Days is a
name for God that appears in the
Book of Daniel. In an early Venetian school
Coronation of the Virgin by
Giovanni d'Alemagna and
Antonio Vivarini, (), God the Father is shown in the representation consistently used by other artists later, namely as a patriarch, with benign, yet powerful countenance and with long white hair and a beard, a depiction largely derived from, and justified by, the description of the
Ancient of Days in the
Old Testament, the nearest approach to a physical description of God in the Old Testament:... the Ancient of Days did sit, whose garment was white as snow, and the hair of his head like the pure wool: his throne was like the fiery flame, and his wheels as burning fire. (
Daniel 7:9) St Thomas Aquinas recalls that some bring forward the objection that the Ancient of Days matches the person of the Father, without necessarily agreeing with this statement himself. By the twelfth century depictions of a figure of God the Father, essentially based on the
Ancient of Days in the
Book of Daniel, had started to appear in French manuscripts and in stained glass church windows in England. In the 14th century the illustrated
Naples Bible had a depiction of God the Father in the
Burning bush. By the 15th century, the
Rohan Book of Hours included depictions of God the Father in human form or
anthropomorphic imagery, and by the time of the
Renaissance artistic representations of God the Father were freely used in the Western Church. ,
Georgia Artistic depictions of God the Father were uncontroversial in Catholic art thereafter, but less common depictions of the
Trinity were condemned. In 1745
Pope Benedict XIV explicitly supported the
Throne of Mercy depiction, referring to the "Ancient of Days", but in 1786 it was still necessary for
Pope Pius VI to issue a
papal bull condemning the decision of an Italian church council to remove all images of the Trinity from churches. The depiction remains rare and often controversial in Eastern Orthodox art. In Eastern Orthodox Church hymns and
icons, the Ancient of Days is most properly identified with
God the Son or Jesus, and not with God the Father. Most of the eastern church fathers who comment on the passage in Daniel (7:9–10, 13–14) interpreted the elderly figure as a prophetic revelation of the son before his physical incarnation. As such, Eastern Christian art will sometimes portray Jesus Christ as an old man, the Ancient of Days, to show symbolically that he existed from all eternity, and sometimes as a young man, or wise baby, to portray him as he was incarnate. This
iconography emerged in the 6th century, mostly in the Eastern Empire with elderly images, although usually not properly or specifically identified as "the Ancient of Days". The first images of the Ancient of Days, so named with an inscription, were developed by iconographers in different manuscripts, the earliest of which are dated to the 11th century. The images in these manuscripts included the inscription "Jesus Christ, Ancient of Days," confirming that this was a way to identify Christ as pre-eternal with the God the Father. Indeed, later, it was declared by the
Russian Orthodox Church at the
Great Synod of Moscow in 1667 that the Ancient of Days was the Son and not the Father. ==See also==