Chinese Chinese mythology has been described as "rich in stories about homosexuality". The mythological stories and folklore of China reflect ancient Chinese perspectives toward homosexuality, rather than modern views. These myths are greatly influenced by
religious beliefs, particularly
Daoist and
Confucian, and later incorporated
Buddhist teachings.
Shan Gu, and
Yu the Great, and
Gun. Homosexual encounters are common in Chinese folk stories. The animal spirits or fairies often choose same-sex partners, usually young men or boys. According to the
Xiaomingxiong, one exception to this age preference is the
dragon, a powerful mythological beast.
Chinese dragons "consistently enjoy sexual relationships with older men", one example being in the tale of "Old Farmer and a Dragon", in which a sixty-year-old farmer is forcibly sodomised by a passing dragon, resulting in wounds from penetration and bites that require medical attention.
Tu'er Shen is a deity in
Chinese folklore who manages the love and sex between
homosexual men. His name means "
leveret deity". According to "The Tale of the Rabbit God" in the
What the Master Would Not Discuss, Tu Er Shen was originally a man called
Hu Tianbao, who fell in love with a handsome young imperial inspector of
Fujian. One day Hu Tianbao was caught peeping on the inspector, at which point he confessed his reluctant affections for the other man. The imperial inspector had Hu Tianbao
sentenced to death by beating. Since his crime was one of love, underworld officials decided to right the injustice by delegating Hu Tianbao as the god and safeguarder of homosexual affections. In modern times, the priest Lu Weiming () founded a temple in
Yonghe City,
Taiwan that worships Tu'er Shen and provides spiritual comfort for homosexual Daoists. For thousands of years, male homosexuality was referred to in literature by alluding to two semi-legendary figures from the early
Zhou dynasty. The first was
Mizi Xia and the
half-eaten peach which he shared with his lover, the actual historical figure,
Duke Ling of Wey. The second was
Lord Long Yang, who convinced an unnamed King of
Wey to remain faithful to him by comparing himself to a small fish which the King might throw back if a larger fish came along. While both Mizi Xia and Lord Long Yang may have existed, nothing is known about them beyond their defining stories, and their presence in Chinese literature was very much that of legendary characters who served as
archetypes of homosexual love.
Japanese Shinto gods are involved in all aspects of life, including the practice of
shudo (traditional
pederasty). An overarching patron deity of male-male love and sex, "Shudō Daimyōjin", exists in some
folk Shinto sects, but is not a part of the standard Shinto pantheon. Other kami associated with same-sex love or gender variance include:
Oyamakui, a transgender mountain spirit that protects industry and childbearing; and
Inari Ōkami, the kami of agriculture and rice, who is depicted as various genders, the most common representations being a young female food goddess, an old man carrying rice, and an androgynous
bodhisattva. Inari is further associated with foxes and
kitsune, shapeshifting fox trickster spirits. Kitsune sometimes disguise themselves as women, hiding their true gender, to trick human men into sexual relations with them. A common belief in
medieval Japan was that any woman encountered alone, especially at dusk or night, could be a fox.
Cross-dressing in Japanese Mythology There is widespread agreement that cross-dressing of heroes and gods is widely observed in Japanese mythology. Through a woman dressed as a man or a man dressed as a woman, a double gender condition is created, gaining powerful power and divinity. Such beliefs existed in Japan before Westernization, according to
Junko Mitsuhashi. Mitsuhashi calls this belief,
Sōsei Genri (; no standard translation. lit. "the Double Gender Principle").
Yamato Takeru, the prince of
Emperor Keikō, the hero of Japan's founding mythology, is cross-dressed and infiltrates the
Kumaso's castle. He succeeded in killing the brave . In , the mythical Japanese invasion of Korea,
Empress Jingū dressed in a man and achieved stunning results. According to Mitsuhashi, these are examples of Sōsei Genri. Sōsei Genri can also be seen in the early modern fiction. For example, Inusaka Keno () and Inuzuka Shino (), swordsmen in the Edo-period novel
Nansō Satomi Hakkenden by
Takizawa Bakin, are young men raised as a girl, but played superhuman activities to kill the enemy. Mitsuhashi considers that the cross-dressing of men seen at modern Japanese festivals originated from the ancient Sōsei Genri.
Yamato Takeru Regarding
Yamato Takeru's cross-dressing, it has had various views.
Kojiki-den by
Motoori Norinaga emphasized that it was a way to obtain the protection of
Yamatohime-no-mikoto and more specifically
Amaterasu, and most commentaries of
Kojiki and historians such as supported
Kojikiden's view. While acknowledged the spiritual power of the unmarried princess Yamatohime but argued that Amaterasu need not be taken into consideration, emphasized the spiritual dignity of Amaterasu and claimed that Yamatotakeru visited
Ise Shrine. Toshihiko Moriya appealed to "common sense" and made the case for visiting Ise Shrine, but Mariko Hoshiyama was skeptical and saw the cross-dressing by Yamatotakeru as a part of the
rites of coming-of-age. However, Sanae Fukutō points out that "a reexamination is now required" since the
Kojiki and
Nihon Shoki are entirely separate mythologies that should not be uncritically contrasted or compared.
Reincarnation into Yang Guifei As a part of , Yamato Takeru's cross-dressing attracted attention in the Middle Ages. In
Bai Juyi's
Song of Everlasting Regret, there is a passage in which
Emperor Xuanzong sees
Yang Guifei's soul floating in
Mount Penglai after her death. Japanese intellectuals identified Mount Penglai with Japan, and so they turned their attention to Bai Juyi's poetry. A
setsuwa in the
Keiranshūyōshū () by Kōshu () identifies Yang Guifei's palace at Penglei with
Atsuta Shrine in Japan. The
Soga Monogatari states that Emperor Xuanzong also came to Japan after his death and became the god
Hakkengū. In a Shinto theological book in 1523,
Unshū Hinokawa Ame ga Uchi no Ki (), Emperor Xuanzong planned to invade Japan in search of Yang Guifei, and it is said that the Japanese gods held a conference and had a god from
Atsuta Shrine dress up as a woman and become Yang Guifei to calm Emperor Xuanzong's mind. Tōgoku Kikō () by and also held this story in the
Sengoku period. Edo period scholars such as
Hayashi Razan (in
Honchō Jinja-kō ,
Tōkō Nichiroku , Heishin Kikō ), (in ) and Izawa Banryō () criticized this as an ignorant theory, and it gradually fell out. A stupa dedicated to Yang Guifei was erected at
Atsuta Shrine, but was removed during renovations during the
Jōkyō era (1684-1688) but the stones, believed to have been fragments, can still be seen today.
Empress Jingū Regarding
Empress Jingū's cross-dressing,
Shinobu Orikuchi understood it as a shamanic act, since warfare in ancient times was a divine ritual. He also pointed out that a similar example was the wife of the
Asuka period warrior , who had dressed as a man and fought in the invasion against the
Emishi. Hisashi Yamada shares a similar view, and believes that the example of armed
Kikoe-ōgimi in
Omoro Sōshi pointed out by
Ifa Fuyū is also related to this cross-dressing.
Susanoo When
Susanoo slays the dragon
Yamata no Orochi, he wears the comb that
Kushinadahime transformed into. Since combs symbolize women in ancient Japan, some have interpreted this as Susanoo cross-dressing. An early example is in
The Tale of the Heike, written in the Middle Ages, which interprets Susanoo as cross-dressing. , , and
Hayao Kawai have linked this attire of Susanoo to the cross-dressing
Yamatotakeru. However, claims that cross-dressing cannot be inferred from the act of wearing a comb.
Amaterasu's queerness Amaterasu, the supreme deity in Japanese mythology and the
imperial ancestor, is also called Ōhirume (ō-hiru-me; lit. "great-daylight-woman") and is generally known as a goddess. However, a lot of third gender interpretations have been performed since ancient times, so the pronoun here is they. In ancient Japanese mythology,
Amaterasu was surprised to see
Susanoo ascending to
Takamagahara, so they dressed as a man and armed themself. This is often thought to stem from Amaterasu's
third gender shamanic nature.
Amaterasu retreats from conflict with their brother
Susanoo into the cave of
Amano-Iwato, depriving the Earth of sunlight and life. To coax Amaterasu from the cave, the deity of humour and dance,
Ame-no-Uzume, performs a bawdy sexual dance that involved exposing her breasts and vulva. On Amaterasu's stepping out of the cave,
Ishikori-dome no Mikoto held up a magical mirror, and the combination of the dance and their reflection distracted Amaterasu so much that they did not notice other deities closing the cave entrance behind them. In Japanese academia, Ame-no-Uzume's sexual dance has generally been understood to have a magical significance: an Edo period scholar
Hirata Atsutane, for example, linked Ame-no-Uzume's genital exposure to genital folklore of the time. In the scene where the male god
Ninigi-no-Mikoto descends to earth, Ame-no-Uzume similarly exposes her genitals and breasts. On the other hand, Conner, Sparks & Sparks (1998) is reading lesbianism in this story. As seen above,
Amaterasu is often noted for their
gender variance or queerness. Already in the
Heian period,
Amaterasu was associated with
cross-dressing or gender variance.
Nakayama Tadachika's diary and 's diary , written at the end of the Heian period, contain records of men's clothing being presented to Amaterasu at the of
Ise Grand Shrine. Medieval Shintoism offered esoteric interpretations of the ancient Japanese mythology. In many medieval sources,
Amaterasu's gender is ambiguous and "confused".
Nihongi ichi Jindaikan Shuibun () in the early 15th century states that Amaterasu first appears as a man and is a god of
yang, and sometimes as a woman and is a goddess of
yin for the sake of enlightenment of the
sentient beings.
Tenchi Kanjōki () in 1568 states that Amaterasu at the of
Ise Grand Shrine is female but resides in a male body, and that at is male but resides in a female body.
Nichiiki Hongi () in the
Nanboku-chō period saw Amaterasu as
physically androgynous, and of a gender variance, probably, "one that could not be determined as either a god or a goddess".:9 Furthermore, some medieval esoteric commentaries identify
Kuni-no-Tokotachi with ''Konrin'ō
(; a Chakravarti) and Rāgarāja ( ). Nichiiki Hongi
, Daijingū Hon'en
(), and Nihongi Sanrin-ryū'' () consider Kuni-no-Tokotachi's spiritual essence to be an androgynous
third gender.: 125(20) For example, Amaterasu is believed to have appeared in
Hyūga as the boy deity in Ryōbu Shintō. , who advocated egalitarianism, used Amaterasu's androgynous nature as a basis for his argument on equality between men and women. Kei Chiba points out that in early modern Japan,
ohaguro was a feminine grooming habit and may have signified a certain third gender nature of the
emperor, the
human deity and a descendant of Amaterasu.: 8 However, through the
Meiji Restoration, Amaterasu's queer symbolization was eventually removed from the legitimacy and regarded as heresy. This elimination is also related to the fact that Amaterasu was sometimes used as a symbol of anti-government movements from the
Edo period to the early
Meiji era. For example, an that occurred in
Hokuetsu in 1874 used Amaterasu as a symbol and called for the restoration of the
Tokugawa shogunate. Around 1885, Yohei Kobayashi () started a social movement called Jindai Hukko Seigan Undō (), which called for a return to the pre-
imperial era of myth, videlicet of Amaterasu. Kei Chiba argues that Amaterasu's queerness and dissident traits were an obstacle to the Meiji government's aims of
Westernization and the emperor-centered family system of
heteronormativity and
patriarchy. The symbology of Amaterasu in ancient mythology was sometimes interpreted as
cross-dressing, but ultimately their gender variance feature was "castrated" and they were "domesticated" under fascism as the supreme mother.
Shino no Hafuri and Amano no Hafuri It has been suggested since the
Edo period that the oldest recorded homosexual relationship in Japan was between Shino no Hōri/Hafuri () and Amano no Hōri/Hafuri (). These were priests () of different shrine, speculatively the
sun goddess Amaterasu. When Shino died of illness, Amano
committed suicide from grief, and the couple were buried together in the same grave. According to
Nihon Shoki, when
Empress Jingū defeated the rebellion of
Emperor Chūai's and Ōnakatsu Hime's son, , it became dark as night even though it was day. It was discovered that the cause of this strange phenomenon was the sin of
azunai () committed by Shino and Amano. Although
Nihon Shoki states that the sin of
azunai was the sin of burying priests from two shrines in the same grave, homophobic
Edo period researchers argued that the sin of
azunai was a sin related to homosexuality.
Indian Buddhist In traditional
Thai Buddhism, accounts propose that "homosexuality arises as a
karmic consequence of violating Buddhist proscriptions against heterosexual misconduct" in a previous incarnation. Thai Buddhists also believe the disciple
Ānanda to have been reincarnated several times as a woman, and in one previous life to have been transgender. Ānanda is popular and charismatic, and known for his emotionality. In one story of one of his previous lives, Ānanda was a solitary
yogi who fell in love with a
nāga, a serpent king of Indian folklore, who took the form of a handsome youth. The relationship became sexual, causing Ānanda to regretfully break off contact, to avoid distraction from spiritual matters. Some
bodhisattvas change sexes in different incarnations, which causes some to associate this with homosexuality and transgender identities.
Guanyin,
Avalokiteśvara, and
Tara are known to have different gender representations. Non-divine beings also undergo sex-changes through the actions of the gods, as the result of curses or blessings, or as the natural outcome of
reincarnation. Hindu mythology contains numerous incidents where sexual interactions serve a non-sexual, sacred purpose; in some cases, these are same-sex interactions. Sometimes the gods condemn these interactions but at other times they occur with their blessing. In addition to stories of gender and sexual variance that are generally accepted by mainstream Hinduism, modern scholars and
queer activists have highlighted LGBT themes in lesser known texts, or inferred them from stories that traditionally are considered to have no homoerotic subtext. Such analyses have caused disagreements about the true meaning of the ancient stories.
Philippines In
Tagalog mythology, the
hermaphrodite Lakapati is identified as the most important fertility deity in the Tagalog pantheon. A prayer dedicated to Lakapati was recited by children when sowing seeds: "Lakapati, pakanin mo yaring alipin mo; huwag mong gutumin (Lakapati, feed this thy slave; let him not hunger)". In
Suludnon mythology, there are accounts of female
binukots (well-kept maidens) who had powers to
transition into male warriors. The most famous of which are Nagmalitong Yawa and Matan-ayon. In one epic, after Buyong Humadapnon was captured by the magical binukot Sinangkating Bulawan, the also powerful female binukot, Nagmalitong Yawa, cast her magic and transitioned into a male warrior named Buyong Sumasakay. He afterwards successfully rescued the warrior Buyong Humadapnon. In a similar epic, the female binukot Matan-ayon, in search of her husband Labaw Donggon, sailed the stormy seas using the golden ship Hulinday together with her less powerful brother-in-law Paubari. Once when she was bathing after sailing far, Buyong Pahagunong spotted her and tried to make her his bride. The event was followed by a series of combat, where in one instance, Matan-ayon transitioned into the male warrior Buyong Makalimpong. After a series of battles, Labaw Donggon arrives and attacks Buyong Pahagunong, while Buyong Makalimpong once again transitioned into Matan-ayon. Matan-ayon then has a conversation with the supreme goddess Laonsina about why the men are fighting and agree to sit back and watch them if they truly are seeking death. In
Waray mythology, the supreme creator deity has both
female and male aspects. Usually spoken of in her female aspect,
Malaon ("the ancient one"), she was regarded as a more sympathetic deity of justice and equality. However, her male aspect,
Makapatag (literally "the leveler"), is regarded as a destructive deity of punishment and vengeance.
Abrahamic Christian , history's first recorded LGBT icon (1564) The saints
Sergius and Bacchus' close relationship has led many modern commentators to believe they were lovers. The most popular evidence for this view is that the oldest text of their martyrology, in the
Greek language, describes them as
erastai (. Historian
John Boswell considered their relationship to be an example of an early Christian
same-sex union, reflecting his contested view of
tolerant early Christian attitudes toward homosexuality.
Saint Sebastian is a long-standing
gay icon. The combination of his strong, shirtless physique, the symbolism of the arrows penetrating his body, and the look on his face of rapturous pain have intrigued artists (gay or otherwise) for centuries, and began the first explicitly gay cult in the 19th century.
Islamic and Pre-Islamic Arabian Islamic folk beliefs remain common, such as the myths surrounding the
jinn, long-lived shape-shifting spirits created from "smokeless fire" (
Quran 15:27) and which correspond to the second group of angels who were created on the
fifth day of Creation in the
text of Jewish Kabbalah called the
Bahir "Illumination", which were created from "flameless fire". Some believe their shape-shifting abilities allow them to change gender at will but this is not consistent throughout the Islamic world although their ability to fly and travel exceedingly fast are consistent traits of the Jinn. The word Jinn means "hidden from sight" and they are sometimes considered to be led by
Iblis, representing powers of magic and rebellion, and posing as bringers of wealth as the devil acclaim. These traits are associated with the Jinn on account of Iblis' rebellion against the order of God to acknowledge Adam's ability to be superior to the Jinn and his refusal to bow down stating that "he was created from fire and Adam was created from clay" (
Quran 7:11-12). The ability of the Jinn to travel to the heavens and listen to the discussion of angels and bring back what they overhear and relay it to seers and oracles has linked them with magic (Quran 72:8-10). Jinn are served by the al-Jink and
mukhannathun, transgender and homoerotically inclined wanderers with entertainment and spiritual functions. In
pre-Islamic Arabic and
Oikoumene cultures, third-gender individuals such as mukhannathun were worshippers in widespread goddess cults. These cults revered a trio of goddesses:
al-lāt,
al-Uzza, and
Manāt. which in pre-Islamic Arabia were believed to be
daughters of God but were denounced as false idols in
Quran 53:19-23. Arabian mythology also contains magical sex-changing springs or fountains, such as al-Zahra. Upon bathing in or drinking from al-Zahra, a person will change sex. The folklore of
Swat in northern
Pakistan often includes same-sex relationships in which the "beloved" is a handsome younger man or boy.
Judaism The story of
David and Jonathan has been described as "biblical Judeo-Christianity's most influential justification of homoerotic love". The relationship between David and Jonathan is mainly covered in the
Hebrew Bible in the
1st Book of Samuel as part of the story of David's ascent to power. The mainstream view found in modern
biblical exegesis argues that the relationship between the two is merely a close
platonic friendship. However, there has recently been a tradition of interpreting the love between David and Jonathan as romantic or sexual. Another biblical hero,
Noah, best known for his building an
ark to save animals and worthy people from a
divinely-caused flood, later became a wine-maker. One day he drank too much wine and fell asleep naked in his tent. When his son
Ham enters the tent, he sees his father naked, and Canaan, one of Ham's sons is
cursed with banishment. In Jewish tradition, it is also suggested that Ham had anal sex with Noah or castrated him.
Mesopotamian: Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian, Assyrian, Phoenician, and Canaanite The ancient regions of
Mesopotamia and
Canaan were inhabited by a succession of overlapping civilisations:
Sumer,
Phoenicia,
Agade,
Babylonia, and
Assyria. The mythologies of these people were interlinked, often containing the same stories and mythological gods and heroes under different names. The
Eridu Genesis, "The Creation of Man", from circa the
20th century BC, lists physically differing people created by the goddess
Ninmah. These included "the woman who cannot give birth" and "the one who has no male organ or female organ", which have been regarded as being third gender or androgynous.
Enki, the supreme god, is accepting of these people and assigns them roles in society as
naditu (priestesses) and
girsequ (servants to the king). The Akkadian mythical epic
Atrahasis contains another iteration of this story in which Enki specifically requests that Nintu create a "third-category" of people that includes third-gender people, barren women, and an "infant-stealing demon". The cultural practice, or "me", of androgynous, third-gender or homoerotically inclined priests were part of those said to have been stolen by Innana from Enki in "
The Descent of Innana" myth. The changes may also facilitate possession by the goddess, causing a psychological change or prompting physical castration. The relationship between the semi-divine hero
Gilgamesh and his "intimate companion"
Enkidu in the Sumerian
Epic of Gilgamesh has been interpreted as a sexual one by some modern scholars. Enkidu was created as a companion to Gilgamesh by the goddess
Aruru, and civilised by a priestess. As Gilgamesh and Enkidu were of similar ages and status, their relationship has been seen as relatively egalitarian, in contrast with the typically pederastic mode of
ancient Greece. Ahriman has also been regarded as the patron of men who partake of homosexual sex. However, this negative portrayal of homosexuality in Zoroastrianism is not found in the
Gathas, their original holy book which is said to be the direct sayings of the prophet
Zoroaster. ==Mythologies of Europe==