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Outline of philosophy

Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. It is distinguished from other ways of addressing fundamental questions by being critical and generally systematic and by its reliance on rational argument. It involves logical analysis of language and clarification of the meaning of words and concepts.

Branches of philosophy
The branches of philosophy and their sub-branches that are used in contemporary philosophy are as follows. Aesthetics Aesthetics is study of the nature of beauty, art, and taste, and the creation of personal kinds of truth. • Philosophy of artPhilosophy of colorPhilosophy of designPhilosophy of filmPhilosophy of literature Epistemology Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies the source, nature and validity of knowledge. • Social epistemology – inquiry into the social aspects of knowledge. • Formal epistemology – the application of formal models to study knowledge. • Metaepistemology – studying the foundations of epistemology itself. Ethics Ethics – study of value and morality. • Applied ethics – philosophical examination, from a moral standpoint, of particular issues in private and public life that are matters of moral judgment. It is thus the attempts to use philosophical methods to identify the morally correct course of action in various fields of human life. • Bioethics – analysis of controversial ethical issues emerging from advances in medicine. • Environmental ethics – studies ethical issues concerning the non-human world. It exerts influence on a large range of disciplines including environmental law, environmental sociology, ecotheology, ecological economics, ecology and environmental geography. • Medical ethics – studies ethical issues concerning medicine and medical research. • Professional ethics – ethics to improve professionalism. • Discourse ethics – discovery of ethical principles through the study of language. • Normative ethics – study of ethical theories that prescribe how people ought to act. • Metaethics – branch of ethics that seeks to understand the nature of ethical properties, statements, attitudes, and judgments. Logic Logic – the systematic study of the form of valid inference and reasoning. Also regarded as the separate formal science.Classical logicPropositional logicFirst-order logicSecond-order logicHigher-order logicNon-classical logicDescription logicDigital logicFuzzy logicIntuitionistic logicMany-valued logicModal logicAlethic logicDeontic logicDoxastic logicEpistemic logicTemporal logicParaconsistent logicSubstructural logicMetalogicPhilosophy of logic Metaphysics Metaphysics – concerned with explaining the fundamental nature of being and the world that encompasses it. • Cosmology – the study of the nature and origins of the universe. • Ontology – philosophical study of the nature of being, becoming, existence, or reality, as well as the basic categories of being and their relations. • Meta-ontology – study of the ontological foundations of ontology itself. • Philosophy of space and time – branch of philosophy concerned with the issues surrounding the ontology, epistemology, and character of space and time. OtherTranshumanismMetaphilosophyPhenomenologyPhilosophy of actionPhilosophy of educationPhilosophy of environmentPhilosophy of historyPhilosophy of languagePhilosophy of lawPhilosophy of lifePhilosophy of mathematicsPhilosophy of mindPhilosophy of religionPhilosophy of love and sex • • Philosophical anthropologyPhilosophy of archaeologyPhilosophy of biologyPhilosophy of chemistryPhilosophy of computer sciencePhilosophy of artificial intelligencePhilosophy of geographyPhilosophy of medicinePhilosophy of physicsInterpretations of quantum mechanicsPhilosophy of social sciencePhilosophy of economicsPhilosophy of psychologyPhilosophy of sportsPhilosophy of warPolitical philosophyPragmatism == Philosophic traditions by region ==
History of philosophy
The history of philosophy in specific contexts of time and space. Timeline of philosophy 11th century in philosophy12th century in philosophy13th century in philosophy14th century in philosophy15th century in philosophy16th century in philosophy17th century in philosophy18th century in philosophy19th-century philosophy20th-century philosophy Ancient and classical philosophy Philosophies during ancient history. Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy Pre-Socratic philosophyMilesian school - Thales, Anaximander, AnaximenesXenophanesPythagoreanismHeraclitusEleatics - Parmenides, Zeno, and MelissusPluralists - Empedocles and AnaxagorasAtomists - Leucippus, DemocritusSophistsClassical Greek philosophySocratic schoolsMegarian schoolEretrian schoolCynicismCyrenaicsPlatonismPeripatetic schoolHellenistic philosophyAcademic skepticismMiddle AcademyNew AcademyEpicureanismPyrrhonismStoicismAncient Roman philosophyMiddle PlatonismNeopythagoreanismNeoplatonism Classical Chinese philosophy Hundred Schools of ThoughtConfucianismLegalismTaoismMohismSchool of NaturalistsSchool of NamesSchool of DiplomacyAgriculturalismSyncretismYangism Classical Indian philosophy Orthodox schoolsSamkhyaYogaNyayaVaisheshikaMīmāṃsāVedantaHeterodox schoolsAjñanaJain philosophyBuddhist philosophyĀjīvikaCharvaka Medieval and post-classical philosophy Philosophies during post-classical history. Christian philosophy Neoplatonism ChristianScholasticismThomism Islamic philosophy AvicennismAverroismIlluminationism Jewish philosophy Judeo-Islamic philosophies Post-classical Chinese philosophy Neo-ConfucianismXuanxueZen Modern and contemporary philosophy Philosophies during the modern era. Renaissance philosophy Renaissance humanismRenaissance Jewish philosophyMachiavellianismNeostoicismRamismSchool of Salamanca Early modern philosophy EmpiricismRationalismIdealism Contemporary philosophy Analytic philosophyLogical positivismLogicismContinental philosophyPhenomenologyExistentialismDeconstructionStructuralism • Contemporary Asian philosophy • Buddhist modernismNew ConfucianismMaoismKyoto SchoolNeo-VedantaContemporary Islamic philosophyTranscendent theosophyTraditionalist School == Philosophical schools of thought ==
Philosophical schools of thought
Philosophical schools of thought not tied to particular historic contexts. Aesthetical movements SymbolismRomanticismHistoricismClassicismModernismPostmodernismPsychoanalytic theory Epistemological stances CoherentismConstructivist epistemologyContextualismEmbodied cognitionEmpiricismFallibilismFoundationalismHolismInfinitismInnatismInternalism and externalismLogical positivismNaïve realismNaturalized epistemologyObjectivist epistemologyPhenomenalismPositivismReductionismReformed epistemologyReliabilismRepresentative realismRationalismSituated cognitionSkepticismTheory of FormsTranscendental idealismUniformitarianism Ethical theories ConsequentialismDeontologyVirtue ethicsMoral realismMoral relativismError theoryNon-cognitivismEthical egoismCultural relativismEvolutionary ethicsEvolution of moralityFace-to-face Logical systems Classical logicIntermediate logicIntuitionistic logicMinimal logicRelevant logicAffine logicLinear logicOrdered logicDialetheism Metaphysical stances AbsurdismAnti-realismCartesian dualismFree willMaterialismMeaning of lifeIdealismExistentialismEssentialismLibertarianismDeterminismCompatibilismNaturalismMonismPhilosophical pessimismPlatonic idealismHindu idealismPhenomenalismNihilismRealismPhysicalismMOQRelativismScientific realismSolipsismSubjectivismObjectivismSubstance theoryType theoryEmergentismEmanationism Political philosophies AnarchismAuthoritarianismConservatismFascismLiberalismLibertarianismSocial democracySocialismCommunism Philosophy of language theories and stances Causal theory of referenceContrast theory of meaningContrastivismConventionalismCratylismDeconstructionDescriptivist theory of namesDirect reference theoryDramatismExpressivismLinguistic determinismLogical atomismMediated reference theoryNominalismNon-cognitivismPhallogocentrismQuietismRelevance theorySemantic externalismSemantic holismStructuralismSupposition theorySymbiosismTheological noncognitivismTheory of descriptionsVerification theory Philosophy of mind BehaviourismBiological naturalismConsciousnessDisjunctivismDualismEliminative materialismEmergent materialismEnactivismEpiphenomenalismFunctionalismIdentity theoryIdealismInteractionismMaterialismMonismNeutral monismPanpsychismPhenomenalismPhenomenologyPhysicalismProperty dualismRepresentational theory of mindSense datum theorySolipsismSubstance dualismQualia theory Philosophy of religion stances Theories of religionAcosmismAgnosticismAnimismAntireligionAtheismDharmismDeismDivine command theoryDualistic cosmologyEsotericismExclusivismExistentialismChristianAgnosticAtheistFeminist theologyFideismFundamentalismGnosticismHenotheismHumanismReligiousSecularChristianInclusivismMonismMonotheismMysticismNaturalismMetaphysicalReligiousHumanisticNew AgeNondualismNontheismPandeismPantheismPerennialismPolytheismProcess theologySpiritualismShamanismTaoicTheismTranscendentalism Philosophy of science theories and stances Confirmation holismCoherentismContextualismConventionalismDeductive-nomological modelDeterminismEmpiricismFallibilismFoundationalismHypothetico-deductive modelInfinitismInstrumentalismPositivismPragmatismRationalismReceived view of theoriesReductionismSemantic view of theoriesScientific realismScientismScientific anti-realismSkepticismUniformitarianismVitalism == Philosophical literature ==
Philosophical literature
Reference works Encyclopedia of Philosophy – one of the major English encyclopedias of philosophy. The second edition, edited by Donald M. Borchert, was published in ten volumes in 2006 by Thomson Gale. Volumes 1–9 contain alphabetically ordered articles. • Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy – a free online encyclopedia on philosophical topics and philosophers founded by James Fieser in 1995. The current general editors are James Fieser (Professor of Philosophy at the University of Tennessee at Martin) and Bradley Dowden (Professor of Philosophy at California State University, Sacramento). The staff also includes numerous area editors as well as volunteers. • Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy – encyclopedia of philosophy edited by Edward Craig that was first published by Routledge in 1998 (). Originally published in both 10 volumes of print and as a CD-ROM, in 2002 it was made available online on a subscription basis. The online version is regularly updated with new articles and revisions to existing articles. It has 1,300 contributors providing over 2,000 scholarly articles.Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy – combines an online encyclopedia of philosophy with peer reviewed publication of original papers in philosophy, freely-accessible to internet users. Each entry is written and maintained by an expert in the field, including professors from many academic institutions worldwide. • • • The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy by Robert Audi • ; in 1996, a ninth supplemental volume appeared that updated the classic 1967 encyclopedia. • International Directory of Philosophy and Philosophers. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center. • Directory of American Philosophers. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center. • Routledge History of Philosophy (10 vols.) edited by John Marenbon • History of Philosophy (9 vols.) by Frederick CoplestonA History of Western Philosophy (5 vols.) by W.T. JonesHistory of Italian Philosophy (2 vols.) by Eugenio Garin. Translated from Italian and Edited by Giorgio Pinton. Introduction by Leon Pompa. • Encyclopaedia of Indian Philosophies (8 vols.), edited by Karl H. Potter et al. (first 6 volumes out of print) • Indian Philosophy (2 vols.) by Sarvepalli RadhakrishnanA History of Indian Philosophy (5 vols.) by Surendranath DasguptaHistory of Chinese Philosophy (2 vols.) by Fung Yu-lan, Derk Bodde • Instructions for Practical Living and Other Neo-Confucian Writings by Wang Yang-ming by Chan, Wing-tsit • Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy edited by Antonio S. Cua • Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion by Ingrid Fischer-Schreiber, Franz-Karl Ehrhard, Kurt Friedrichs • Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy by Brian Carr, Indira Mahalingam • A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English by John A. Grimes • History of Islamic Philosophy edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Oliver Leaman • History of Jewish Philosophy edited by Daniel H. Frank, Oliver Leaman • A History of Russian Philosophy: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Centuries by Valerii Aleksandrovich Kuvakin • Ayer, A.J. et al., Ed. (1994) A Dictionary of Philosophical Quotations. Blackwell Reference Oxford. Oxford, Basil Blackwell Ltd. • Blackburn, S., Ed. (1996)The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford, Oxford University Press. • Mautner, T., Ed. The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy. London, Penguin Books. • • Angeles, P.A., Ed. (1992). The HarperCollins Dictionary of Philosophy. New York, Harper Perennial. • • Hoffman, Eric, Ed. (1997) Guidebook for Publishing Philosophy. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center. • Popkin, R.H. (1999). The Columbia History of Western Philosophy. New York, Columbia University Press. • Bullock, Alan, and Oliver Stallybrass, jt. eds. The Harper Dictionary of Modern Thought. New York: Harper & Row, 1977. xix, 684 p. N.B.: First published in England under the title, "The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought". • Reese, W.L. Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion: Eastern and Western Thought. Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1980. iv, 644 p. General introduction • • Blumenau, Ralph. Philosophy and Living. • Craig, Edward. Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction. • Harrison-Barbet, Anthony, Mastering Philosophy. • Russell, Bertrand. The Problems of Philosophy. • Sinclair, Alistair J. What is Philosophy? An Introduction, 2008, • Sober, Elliott. (2001). Core Questions in Philosophy: A Text with Readings. Upper Saddle River, Prentice Hall. • Solomon, Robert C. Big Questions: A Short Introduction to Philosophy. • Warburton, Nigel. Philosophy: The Basics. • Nagel, Thomas. What Does It All Mean? A Very Short Introduction to Philosophy. • Classics of Philosophy (Vols. 1, 2, & 3) by Louis P. Pojman • Cottingham, John. Western Philosophy: An Anthology. 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2008. Print. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies. • Tarnas, Richard. The Passion of the Western Mind: Understanding the Ideas That Have Shaped Our World View. Topical introductions African • Imbo, Samuel Oluoch. An Introduction to African Philosophy. EasternA Source Book in Indian Philosophy by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Charles A. Moore • Hamilton, Sue. Indian Philosophy: a Very Short Introduction. • Kupperman, Joel J. Classic Asian Philosophy: A Guide to the Essential Texts. • Lee, Joe and Powell, Jim. Eastern Philosophy For Beginners. • Smart, Ninian. World Philosophies. • Copleston, Frederick. Philosophy in Russia: From Herzen to Lenin and Berdyaev. IslamicMedieval Islamic Philosophical Writings edited by Muhammad Ali Khalidi • • • Historical introductions General • File not found 2026-10-23. First published in Russian as . • Higgins, Kathleen M. and Solomon, Robert C. A Short History of Philosophy. • Durant, Will, ''Story of Philosophy: The Lives and Opinions of the World's Greatest Philosophers'', Pocket, 1991, • First published in Russian as . Ancient • Knight, Kelvin. Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre. MedievalThe Phenomenology Reader by Dermot Moran, Timothy Mooney • Kim, J. and Ernest Sosa, Ed. (1999). Metaphysics: An Anthology. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd. • Modern and contemporaryThe English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill by Edwin Arthur • European Philosophers from Descartes to Nietzsche by Monroe Beardsley • Existentialism: Basic Writings (Second Edition) by Charles Guignon, Derk Pereboom • Curley, Edwin, A Spinoza Reader, Princeton, 1994, • Bullock, Alan, R.B. Woodings, and John Cumming, eds. The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thinkers, in series, Fontana Original[s]. Hammersmith, Eng.: Fontana Press, 1992 [1983]. xxv, 867 p. • Scruton, Roger. A Short History of Modern Philosophy. • Contemporary Analytic Philosophy: Core Readings by James Baillie • Appiah, Kwame Anthony. Thinking it Through  – An Introduction to Contemporary Philosophy, 2003, • Critchley, Simon. Continental Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction. ==Lists==
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