In ancient cultures Several species of dung beetle, especially the sacred scarab,
Scarabaeus sacer, were revered in
Ancient Egypt. The hieroglyphic image of the beetle may have had existential, fictional, or ontologic significance. Images of the scarab in bone,
ivory, stone,
Egyptian faience, and precious metals are known from the Sixth Dynasty and up to the period of Roman rule. The scarab was of prime significance in the funerary cult of ancient Egypt. The scarab was linked to
Khepri, the god of the rising
sun, from the supposed resemblance of the rolling of the dung ball by the beetle to the rolling of the sun by the god. Beetles are mentioned as a symbol of the sun, as in ancient Egypt, in
Plutarch's 1st century
Moralia. The
Greek Magical Papyri of the 2nd century BC to the 5th century AD describe scarabs as an ingredient in a spell.
Pliny the Elder discusses beetles in his
Natural History, describing the
stag beetle: "Some insects, for the preservation of their wings, are covered with (
elytra)—the beetle, for instance, the wing of which is peculiarly fine and frail. To these insects a sting has been denied by Nature; but in one large kind we find horns of a remarkable length, two-pronged at the extremities, and forming pincers, which the animal closes when it is its intention to bite." The stag beetle is recorded in a Greek myth by
Nicander and recalled by
Antoninus Liberalis in which
Cerambus is turned into a beetle: "He can be seen on trunks and has hook-teeth, ever moving his jaws together. He is black, long and has hard wings like a great dung beetle". The story concludes with the comment that the beetles were used as toys by young boys, and that the head was removed and worn as a pendant.
As pests ,
Anthonomus grandis, historically devastated cotton farms throughout the southern United States About 75% of beetle species are phytophagous in both the larval and adult stages. Many feed on economically important plants and stored plant products, including trees, cereals, tobacco, and dried fruits. The
bark beetle,
elm leaf beetle and the Asian longhorned beetle (
Anoplophora glabripennis) are among the species that attack
elm trees. Bark beetles (
Scolytidae) carry
Dutch elm disease as they move from infected breeding sites to healthy trees. The disease has devastated elm trees across Europe and North America. ,
Leptinotarsa decemlineata, a serious crop pest Some species of beetle have evolved immunity to insecticides. For example, the
Colorado potato beetle,
Leptinotarsa decemlineata, is a destructive pest of potato plants. Its hosts include other members of the
Solanaceae, such as
nightshade,
tomato,
eggplant and
capsicum, as well as the potato. Different populations have between them developed resistance to all major classes of insecticide. The Colorado potato beetle was evaluated as a tool of
entomological warfare during
World War II, the idea being to use the beetle and its larvae to damage the crops of enemy nations. Germany tested its Colorado potato beetle weaponisation program south of
Frankfurt, releasing 54,000 beetles. The
death watch beetle,
Xestobium rufovillosum (
Ptinidae), is a serious pest of older wooden buildings in Europe. It attacks
hardwoods such as
oak and
chestnut, always where some fungal decay has taken or is taking place. The actual introduction of the pest into buildings is thought to take place at the time of construction. Other pests include the coconut hispine beetle,
Brontispa longissima, which feeds on young
leaves,
seedlings and mature
coconut trees, causing serious economic damage in the
Philippines. The
mountain pine beetle is a destructive pest of mature or weakened
lodgepole pine, sometimes affecting large areas of Canada.
As beneficial resources '', a predatory beetle beneficial to agriculture Beetles can be beneficial to human economics by controlling the populations of pests. The larvae and adults of some species of
lady beetles (
Coccinellidae) feed on
aphids that are pests. Other lady beetles feed on
scale insects,
whitefly and
mealybugs. If normal food sources are scarce, they may feed on small
caterpillars, young
plant bugs, or
honeydew and
nectar.
Ground beetles (Carabidae) are common
predators of many insect pests, including fly eggs, caterpillars, and wireworms. Ground beetles can help to control
weeds by eating their seeds in the soil, reducing the need for
herbicides to protect crops. The effectiveness of some species in reducing certain plant populations has resulted in the deliberate introduction of beetles in order to control weeds. For example, the genus
Calligrapha is native to North America but has been used to control
Parthenium hysterophorus in India and
Ambrosia artemisiifolia in Russia.
Dung beetles (Scarabidae) have been successfully used to reduce the populations of pestilent flies, such as
Musca vetustissima and
Haematobia exigua which are serious pests of cattle in
Australia. The beetles make the dung unavailable to breeding pests by quickly rolling and burying it in the soil, with the added effect of improving soil fertility, tilth, and nutrient cycling. The
Australian Dung Beetle Project (1965–1985), introduced species of dung beetle to Australia from South Africa and Europe to reduce populations of
Musca vetustissima, following successful trials of this technique in
Hawaii. The
Dermestidae are often used in
taxidermy and in the preparation of scientific specimens, to clean soft tissue from bones. Larvae feed on and remove cartilage along with other soft tissue.
As food and medicine Beetles are the most widely eaten insects, with about 344 species used as food, usually at the larval stage. The
mealworm (the larva of the
darkling beetle) and the
rhinoceros beetle are among the species commonly eaten. A wide range of species is also used in
folk medicine to treat those suffering from a variety of disorders and illnesses, though this is done without clinical studies supporting the efficacy of such treatments.
As biodiversity indicators Due to their habitat specificity, many species of beetles have been suggested as suitable as indicators, their presence, numbers, or absence providing a measure of habitat quality. Predatory beetles such as the tiger beetles (
Cicindelidae) have found scientific use as an indicator taxon for measuring regional patterns of biodiversity. They are suitable for this as their taxonomy is stable; their life history is well described; they are large and simple to observe when visiting a site; they occur around the world in many habitats, with species specialised to particular habitats; and their occurrence by species accurately indicates other species, both vertebrate and invertebrate. According to the habitats, many other groups such as the rove beetles in human-modified habitats, dung beetles in savannas and saproxylic beetles in forests have been suggested as potential indicator species.
In art and adornment in
jewellery at the
Texas A&M University Insect Collection Many beetles have durable elytra that has been used as material in art, with
beetlewing the best example. Sometimes, they are incorporated into ritual objects for their religious significance. Whole beetles, either as-is or encased in clear plastic, are made into objects ranging from cheap souvenirs such as key chains to expensive fine-art jewellery. In parts of Mexico, beetles of the genus
Zopherus are made into
living brooches by attaching costume jewelry and golden chains, which is made possible by the incredibly hard elytra and sedentary habits of the genus.
In entertainment Fighting beetles are used
for entertainment and gambling. This sport exploits the territorial behavior and mating competition of certain species of large beetles. In the
Chiang Mai district of northern Thailand, male
Xylotrupes rhinoceros beetles are caught in the wild and trained for fighting. Females are held inside a log to stimulate the fighting males with their pheromones. These fights may be competitive and involve gambling both money and property. In
South Korea the
Dytiscidae species
Cybister tripunctatus is used in a roulette-like game. Beetles are sometimes used as instruments: the Onabasulu of
Papua New Guinea historically used the "
hugu" weevil
Rhynchophorus ferrugineus as a musical instrument by letting the human mouth serve as a variable
resonance chamber for the wing vibrations of the live adult beetle. in
Borneo In
Japan the practice of keeping horned rhinoceros beetles (
Dynastinae) and stag beetles (
Lucanidae) is particularly popular amongst young boys. Such is the popularity in Japan that
vending machines dispensing live beetles were developed in 1999, each holding up to 100 stag beetles.
As things to collect Beetle collecting became extremely popular in the
Victorian era. The naturalist
Alfred Russel Wallace collected (by his own count) a total of 83,200 beetles during the eight years described in his 1869 book
The Malay Archipelago, including 2,000 species new to science.
As inspiration for technologies Several coleopteran adaptations have attracted interest in
biomimetics with possible commercial applications. The
bombardier beetle's powerful repellent spray has inspired the development of a fine mist spray technology, claimed to have a low carbon impact compared to aerosol sprays. Moisture harvesting behavior by the Namib desert beetle (
Stenocara gracilipes) has inspired a self-filling water bottle which utilises
hydrophilic and
hydrophobic materials to benefit people living in dry regions with no regular rainfall. Living beetles have been used as
cyborgs. A
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency funded project implanted electrodes into
Mecynorhina torquata beetles, allowing them to be remotely controlled via a radio receiver held on its back, as proof-of-concept for surveillance work. Similar technology has been applied to enable a human operator to control the free-flight steering and walking gaits of
Mecynorhina torquata as well as graded turning, backward walking and feedback control of
Zophobas morio.
In conservation Since beetles form such a large part of the world's biodiversity, their conservation is important, and equally, loss of habitat and biodiversity is essentially certain to impact on beetles. Many species of beetles have very specific habitats and long life cycles that make them vulnerable. Some species are highly threatened while others are already feared extinct. Island species tend to be more susceptible as in the case of
Helictopleurus undatus of Madagascar which is thought to have gone extinct during the late 20th century. Conservationists have attempted to arouse a liking for beetles with flagship species like the stag beetle,
Lucanus cervus, and tiger beetles (
Cicindelidae). In Japan the Genji firefly,
Luciola cruciata, is extremely popular, and in South Africa the
Addo elephant dung beetle offers promise for broadening
ecotourism beyond the
big five tourist mammal species. Popular dislike of pest beetles, too, can be turned into public interest in insects, as can unusual ecological adaptations of species like the fairy shrimp hunting beetle,
Cicindis bruchi. ==Notes==