The
Forum Cuppedinis in
ancient Rome was a market which offered general goods. At least four other large markets specialized in specific goods such as
cattle,
wine,
fish and herbs and vegetables, but the
Roman Forum drew the bulk of the traffic. All new cities, like
Timgad, were laid out according to an
orthogonal grid plan which facilitated transportation and commerce. These cities were connected by good
roads. Navigable rivers were extensively used and some canals were dug, but neither leave such clear archaeological traces as roads. Consequently, they tend to be underestimated. Maintaining peace was a major factor in the expansion of trade. All settlements—especially the smaller ones—could be located in economically rational positions. Before and after the Roman Empire, hilltop defensive positions were preferred for small settlements and
piracy made coastal settlement particularly hazardous for all but the largest cities. By the 1st century, the provinces of the Roman Empire were trading huge volumes of commodities to one another via sea routes. There was an increasing tendency for specialization, particularly in manufacturing, agriculture and
mining. Some provinces specialized in producing certain types of goods, such as grain in
Egypt and
North Africa and
wine and olive oil in Italy,
Hispania, and Greece. Knowledge of the
Roman economy is extremely patchy. The vast bulk of traded goods, being agricultural, normally leave no direct remains. Very exceptionally, as at Berenice, there is evidence of long-distance trade in
black pepper,
almonds,
hazelnuts,
stone pine cones,
walnuts,
coconuts,
apricots and
peaches besides the more expected
figs,
raisins and
dates. The wine, olive oil and
garum (fermented fish sauce) trades were exceptional in leaving
amphorae behind. There is a single reference of the Syrian export of kipi stiff
quince jam or
marmalade to Rome.
Land routes Even before the
Roman Republic, the
Roman Kingdom was engaged in regular commerce using the river
Tiber. Before the
Punic Wars completely changed the nature of commerce in the Mediterranean, the Republic had important commercial exchanges with
Carthage. It entered into several commercial and political agreements with its rival city in addition to engaging in simple retail trading. The
Roman Empire traded with the
Chinese (via
Parthian and other intermediaries) over the
Silk Road.
Sea routes Maritime archeology and ancient
manuscripts from
classical antiquity show evidence of vast Roman commercial fleets. The most substantial remains from this commerce are the infrastructure remains of harbors, moles, warehouses and lighthouses at ports such as
Civitavecchia,
Ostia,
Portus,
Leptis Magna and
Caesarea Maritima. At Rome itself,
Monte Testaccio is a tribute to the scale of this commerce. As with most
Roman technology, the Roman seagoing commercial ships had no significant advances over Greek ships of the previous centuries, though the lead sheeting of hulls for protection seems to have been more common. The Romans used round hulled sailing ships. Continuous Mediterranean "police" protection over several centuries was one of the main factors of success of Roman commerce, given that
Roman roads were designed more for feet or hooves – with most land trade moving by pack mule – than for wheels, and could not support the economical transport of goods over long distances. The Roman ships used would have been easy prey for pirates had it not been for the fleets of
liburna galleys and
triremes of the Roman
navy. Bulky, low-value commodities, like grain and construction materials, were traded only by sea routes, since the cost of sea transportation was sixty times lower than land. Staple goods and commodities like
cereals for making
bread and
papyrus scrolls for book production were imported from
Ptolemaic Egypt to Italy in a continuous fashion. The trade over the
Indian Ocean blossomed in the 1st and 2nd century AD. The sailors made use of the
monsoon to cross the ocean from the ports of
Berenice,
Leukos Limen and
Myos Hormos on the
Red Sea coast of
Roman Egypt to the ports of
Muziris and Nelkynda in the
Malabar Coast. The main trading partners in southern India were the
Tamil dynasties of the
Pandyas,
Cholas and
Cheras. Many Roman artifacts have been found in India; for example, at the archaeological site of
Arikamedu, in
Puducherry. Meticulous descriptions of the ports and items of trade around the Indian Ocean can be found in the Greek work
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (see article on
Indo-Roman trade).
Standard weights and measures A standard
amphora, the
amphora capitolina, was kept in the temple of Jupiter on the
Capitoline Hill in Rome, so that others could be compared to it. The
Roman system of measurement was built on the
Greek system with Egyptian influences. Much of it was based on weight. The Roman units were accurate and well documented. Distances were measured, and systematically inscribed on stone by agents of the government. A fairly standard and fairly stable and abundant currency, at least up to circa 200 AD, did much to facilitate trade. (Egypt had its own currency in this period and some provincial cities also issued their own coins.) == Contacts with India and China ==