Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD) China's first
imperial dynasty was the
Qin dynasty (221–206 BC). The Qin united the Chinese
Warring States by conquest, but their regime became unstable after the death of the first emperor
Qin Shi Huang. Within four years, the dynasty's authority had collapsed in a rebellion. Two former rebel leaders,
Xiang Yu () of
Chu and
Liu Bang () of
Han, engaged
in a war to determine who would have hegemony over China, which had fissured into
Eighteen Kingdoms, each claiming allegiance to either Xiang Yu or Liu Bang. Although Xiang Yu proved to be an effective commander, Liu Bang defeated him at the
Battle of Gaixia (202 BC) in modern-day
Anhui. Liu Bang assumed
the title of Emperor at the urging of his followers and is known posthumously as
Emperor Gaozu ().
Chang'an (modern Xi'an) was chosen as the new capital of the
reunified empire under Han. including the capital region (yellow) and ten semi-autonomous kingdoms, 195 BC At the beginning of the
Western Han (), also known as the
Former Han (), thirteen centrally controlled
commanderies—including the capital region—existed in the western third of the empire, while the eastern two-thirds were divided into ten
semi-autonomous kingdoms. To placate his prominent commanders from the war with Chu, Emperor Gaozu
enfeoffed some of them as kings. By 196, the Han court had replaced all of these kings with royal
Liu family members, with the lone exception of
Changsha. The loyalty of non-relatives to the emperor was questioned, and after several insurrections by Han kings—with the largest being the
Rebellion of the Seven States in 154—the imperial court began enacting a series of reforms that limited the power of these kingdoms in 145, dividing their former territories into new commanderies under central control. Kings were no longer able to appoint their own staff; this duty was assumed by the imperial court. Kings became nominal heads of their
fiefs and collected a portion of tax revenues as their personal incomes. The kingdoms were never entirely abolished and existed throughout the remainder of Western and Eastern Han. To the north of
China proper, the nomadic
Xiongnu chieftain
Modu Chanyu () conquered various tribes inhabiting the eastern portion of the
Eurasian Steppe. By the end of his reign, he controlled the
Inner Asian regions of
Manchuria,
Mongolia, and the
Tarim Basin, subjugating over twenty states east of
Samarkand. Emperor Gaozu was troubled about the abundant Han-manufactured iron weapons traded to the Xiongnu along the northern borders, and he established a trade
embargo against the group. In retaliation, the Xiongnu invaded what is now
Shanxi, where they
defeated the Han forces at Baideng in 200 BC. After negotiations, the
heqin agreement in 198 BC nominally held the leaders of the Xiongnu and the Han as equal partners in a royal marriage alliance, but the Han were forced to send large amounts of tribute items such as silk clothes, food, and wine to the Xiongnu. Despite the tribute and negotiation between
Laoshang Chanyu () and
Emperor Wen () to reopen border markets, many of the
Chanyu's subordinates chose not to obey the treaty and periodically raided Han territories south of the
Great Wall for additional goods. In a court conference assembled by
Emperor Wu () in 135 BC, the
majority consensus of the ministers was to retain the
heqin agreement. Emperor Wu accepted this, despite continuing Xiongnu raids. However, a court conference the following year convinced the majority that a
limited engagement at Mayi involving the assassination of the Chanyu would throw the Xiongnu realm into chaos and benefit the Han. When this plot failed in 133 BC, Emperor Wu launched a series of
massive military invasions into Xiongnu territory. The assault culminated in 119 BC at the
Battle of Mobei, when Han commanders
Huo Qubing () and
Wei Qing () forced the Xiongnu court to flee north of the
Gobi Desert, and Han forces reached as far north as
Lake Baikal. warrior, at the mausoleum of Western Han general
Huo Qubing (), who fought in the
Han–Xiongnu War. This is the first known monumental stone statue in China. After Wu's reign, Han forces continued to fight the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu leader
Huhanye () finally submitted to the Han as a tributary vassal in 51 BC. Huhanye's rival claimant to the throne,
Zhizhi Chanyu (), was killed by Han forces under
Chen Tang and
Gan Yanshou at the
Battle of Zhizhi, in modern
Taraz, Kazakhstan. In 121 BC, Han forces expelled the Xiongnu from a vast territory spanning the
Hexi Corridor to
Lop Nur. They repelled a joint Xiongnu-
Qiang invasion of this northwestern territory in 111 BC. In that same year, the Han court established four new frontier commanderies in this region to consolidate their control:
Jiuquan,
Zhangyi,
Dunhuang, and
Wuwei. The majority of people on the frontier were soldiers. On occasion, the court forcibly moved peasant farmers to new frontier settlements, along with government-owned slaves and convicts who performed hard labour. The court also encouraged commoners, such as farmers, merchants, landowners, and hired labourers, to voluntarily migrate to the frontier. Even before the Han's expansion into Central Asia, diplomat
Zhang Qian's travels from 139 to 125 BC had established Chinese contacts with many surrounding civilizations. Zhang encountered
Dayuan (
Fergana),
Kangju (
Sogdiana), and
Daxia (
Bactria, formerly the
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom); he also gathered information on Shendu (the
Indus River valley) and Anxi (the
Parthian Empire). All of these countries eventually received Han embassies. These connections marked the beginning of the
Silk Road trade network that extended to the
Roman Empire, bringing goods like Chinese silk and Roman glasswares between the two. From until , Han forces fought the Xiongnu over control of the oasis city-states in the Tarim Basin. The Han were eventually victorious and established the
Protectorate of the Western Regions in 60 BC, which dealt with the region's defence and foreign affairs. The Han also
expanded southward. The
naval conquest of Nanyue in 111 BC expanded the Han realm into what are now modern
Guangdong,
Guangxi, and northern Vietnam.
Yunnan was brought into the Han realm with the
conquest of the
Dian Kingdom in 109 BC, followed by parts of the
Korean Peninsula with the
Han conquest of Gojoseon and establishment of the
Xuantu and
Lelang commanderies in 108 BC. The first nationwide census in Chinese history was taken in 2 AD; the Han's total population was registered as comprising 57,671,400 individuals across 12,366,470 households. To pay for his military campaigns and colonial expansion, Emperor Wu
nationalised several private industries. He created central government
monopolies administered largely by
former merchants. These monopolies included salt, iron, and liquor production, as well as
bronze coinage. The liquor monopoly lasted only from 98 to 81 BC, and the salt and iron monopolies were eventually
abolished in the early Eastern Han. The issuing of coinage remained a central government monopoly throughout the rest of the Han dynasty. The government monopolies were eventually repealed when a political faction known as the Reformists gained greater influence in the court. The Reformists opposed the Modernist faction that had dominated court politics in Emperor Wu's reign and during the subsequent
regency of
Huo Guang (). The Modernists argued for an aggressive and expansionary foreign policy supported by revenues from heavy government intervention in the private economy. The Han also copied the Qin's centralized administration but emphasized meritocracy and virtue. The Reformists, however, overturned these policies, favouring a cautious, non-expansionary approach to foreign policy, frugal
budget reform, and lower tax-rates imposed on private entrepreneurs.
Wang Mang's reign and civil war ruins of a
granary in Hecang Fortress (), located approximately northeast of the Western Han-era
Yumen Pass, were built during the Western Han (202 BC9 AD) and was significantly rebuilt during the
Western Jin (280–316 AD).
Wang Zhengjun (71 BC13 AD) was first empress, then
empress dowager, and finally
grand empress dowager during the reigns of the Emperors
Yuan (),
Cheng (), and
Ai (), respectively. During this time, a succession of her male relatives held the title of regent. Following the death of Ai, Wang Zhengjun's nephew
Wang Mang (45 BC23 AD) was appointed regent as Marshall of State on 16 August under
Emperor Ping (1 BC6 AD). When Ping died on 3 February 6 AD,
Ruzi Ying () was chosen as the heir and Wang Mang was appointed to serve as acting emperor for the child. Wang promised to relinquish his control to Liu Ying once he came of age. Despite this promise, and against protest and revolts from the nobility, Wang Mang claimed on 10 January that the divine
Mandate of Heaven called for the end of the Han dynasty and the beginning of his own: the
Xin dynasty (9–23 AD). Wang Mang initiated a series of major reforms that were ultimately unsuccessful. These reforms included outlawing slavery,
nationalizing and
equally distributing land between households, and introducing new currencies, a change which debased the value of coinage. Although these reforms provoked considerable opposition, Wang's regime met its ultimate downfall with the massive floods of AD and 11 AD. Gradual silt build-up in the
Yellow River had raised its water level and overwhelmed the
flood control works. The Yellow River split into two new branches: one emptying to the north and the other to the south of the
Shandong Peninsula, though Han engineers managed to dam the southern branch by 70 AD. The flood dislodged thousands of peasant farmers, many of whom joined roving bandit and rebel groups such as the
Red Eyebrows to survive. Wang Mang's armies were incapable of quelling these enlarged rebel groups. Eventually, an insurgent mob forced their way into the
Weiyang Palace and killed Wang Mang. made of
rammed earth at
Dunhuang, located at the eastern edge of the
Silk Road The
Gengshi Emperor (), a descendant of
Emperor Jing (), attempted to restore the Han dynasty and occupied Chang'an as his capital. However, he was overwhelmed by the Red Eyebrow rebels who deposed, assassinated, and replaced him with the puppet monarch
Liu Penzi. Gengshi's distant cousin Liu Xiu, known posthumously as
Emperor Guangwu (), after distinguishing himself at the
Battle of Kunyang in 23 AD, was urged to succeed Gengshi as emperor. Under Guangwu's rule, the Han Empire was restored. Guangwu made
Luoyang his capital in 25 AD, and by 27 his officers
Deng Yu and
Feng Yi had forced the Red Eyebrows to surrender and executed their leaders for
treason. From 26 until 36 AD, Emperor Guangwu had to wage war against other regional warlords who claimed the title of emperor; when these warlords were defeated, China reunified under the Han. The period between the foundation of the Han dynasty and Wang Mang's reign is known as the Western Han () or Former Han () (206 BC9 AD). During this period the capital was at
Chang'an (modern
Xi'an). From the reign of Guangwu the capital was moved eastward to Luoyang. The era from his reign until
the fall of Han is known as the Eastern Han or Later Han (25–220 AD).
Eastern Han (25–220 AD) of a Xiongnu chieftain with impression and transcription, conferred by the Eastern Han government and inscribed with the following text: ("The Chief of the Han Xiongnu, who have returned to righteousness and embraced the Han") The
Eastern Han (), also known as the
Later Han (), formally began on 5 August AD 25, when Liu Xiu became
Emperor Guangwu of Han. During the widespread rebellion against
Wang Mang, the state of
Goguryeo was free to raid Han's
Korean commanderies; Han did not reaffirm its control over the region until AD 30. The
Trưng Sisters of
Vietnam rebelled against Han in AD 40. Their rebellion was crushed by Han general
Ma Yuan () in a campaign from AD 42 to 43. Wang Mang renewed hostilities against the
Xiongnu, who were estranged from Han until their leader Bi (), a rival claimant to the throne against his cousin Punu (), submitted to Han as a tributary vassal in AD 50. This created two rival Xiongnu states: the Southern Xiongnu led by Bi, an ally of Han, and the Northern Xiongnu led by Punu, an enemy of Han. During the turbulent reign of Wang Mang, China lost control over the Tarim Basin, which was conquered by the Northern Xiongnu in AD 63 and used as a base to invade the Hexi Corridor in
Gansu.
Dou Gu () defeated the Northern Xiongnu at the
Battle of Yiwulu in AD 73, evicting them from
Turpan and chasing them as far as
Lake Barkol before establishing a garrison at Hami. After the new Protector General of the Western Regions
Chen Mu () was killed by allies of the Xiongnu in
Karasahr and
Kucha, the garrison at Hami was withdrawn. At the
Battle of Ikh Bayan in AD 89,
Dou Xian () defeated the
Northern Xiongnu chanyu who then retreated into the
Altai Mountains. After the Northern Xiongnu fled into the
Ili River valley in AD 91, the nomadic
Xianbei occupied the area from the borders of the
Buyeo Kingdom in Manchuria to the Ili River of the
Wusun people. The Xianbei reached their apogee under
Tanshihuai (), who consistently defeated Chinese armies. However, Tanshihuai's confederation disintegrated after his death. in the style of the
Kushans, excavated in Shaanxi, 1st–2nd centuries AD
Gansu Provincial Museum Ban Chao () enlisted the aid of the
Kushan Empire, which controlled territory across South and Central Asia, to subdue
Kashgar and its ally Sogdiana. When a request by Kushan ruler
Vima Kadphises () for a marriage alliance with the Han was rejected in AD 90, he sent his forces to
Wakhan (modern-day Afghanistan) to attack Ban Chao. The conflict ended with the Kushans withdrawing because of lack of supplies. In AD 91, the office of Protector General of the Western Regions was reinstated when it was bestowed on Ban Chao. Foreign travellers to the Eastern Han empire included
Buddhist monks who
translated works into Chinese, such as
An Shigao from Parthia, and
Lokaksema from Kushan-era
Gandhara. In addition to tributary relations with the Kushans, the Han empire received gifts from sovereigns in the
Parthian Empire, as well as from kings in modern
Burma and
Japan. He also initiated an unsuccessful mission to
Rome in AD 97 with
Gan Ying as emissary. A
Roman embassy of Emperor
Marcus Aurelius () is recorded in the
Weilüe and
Book of Later Han to have reached the court of
Emperor Huan of Han () in AD 166, yet
Rafe de Crespigny asserts that this was most likely a group of
Roman merchants. In addition to
Roman glasswares and
coins found in China, Roman medallions from the reign of
Antoninus Pius and his adopted son Marcus Aurelius have been found at
Óc Eo in Vietnam. This was near the commandery of
Rinan where Chinese sources claim the Romans first landed, as well as embassies from
Tianzhu in northern India in 159 and 161. Óc Eo is also thought to be the port city "
Cattigara" described by
Ptolemy in his
Geography () as lying east of the
Golden Chersonese (
Malay Peninsula) along the
Magnus Sinus (i.e. the
Gulf of Thailand and
South China Sea), where a Greek sailor had visited. '' from the late Eastern Han-era Dahuting Tomb in
Zhengzhou, Henan
Emperor Zhang's () reign came to be viewed by later Eastern Han scholars as the high point of the dynastic house. Subsequent reigns were increasingly marked by
eunuch intervention in court politics and their involvement in the violent power struggles of the imperial
consort clans. In 92 AD, with the aid of the eunuch
Zheng Zhong (),
Emperor He () had
Empress Dowager Dou () put under
house arrest and her clan stripped of power. This was in revenge for Dou's purging of the clan of his natural mother—
Consort Liang—and then concealing her identity from him. After Emperor He's death, his wife
Empress Deng Sui () managed state affairs as the regent empress dowager during a turbulent financial crisis and widespread Qiang rebellion that lasted from 107 to 118 AD. When Empress Dowager Deng died,
Emperor An () was convinced by the accusations of the eunuchs Li Run () and Jiang Jing () that Deng and her family had planned to depose him. An dismissed Deng's clan members from office, exiled them, and forced many to commit suicide. After An's death, his wife,
Empress Dowager Yan () placed the child
Marquess of Beixiang on the throne in an attempt to retain power within her family. However, palace eunuch
Sun Cheng () masterminded a successful overthrow of her regime to enthrone
Emperor Shun of Han (). Yan was placed under house arrest, her relatives were either killed or exiled, and her eunuch allies were slaughtered. The regent
Liang Ji (), brother of
Empress Liang Na (), had the brother-in-law of
Consort Deng Mengnü () killed after Deng Mengnü resisted Liang Ji's attempts to control her. Afterward, Emperor Huan employed eunuchs to depose Liang Ji, who was then forced to commit suicide. Students from the
imperial university organized a widespread
student protest against the eunuchs of Emperor Huan's court. Huan further alienated the bureaucracy when he initiated grandiose construction projects and hosted thousands of concubines in his harem at a time of economic crisis. Palace eunuchs imprisoned the official Li Ying () and his associates from the Imperial University on a dubious charge of treason. In 167 AD, the Grand Commandant
Dou Wu () convinced his son-in-law, Emperor Huan, to release them. However, the emperor permanently barred Li Ying and his associates from serving in office, marking the beginning of the
Partisan Prohibitions. Following Huan's death, Dou Wu and the Grand Tutor
Chen Fan () attempted a coup against the eunuchs
Hou Lan (),
Cao Jie (), and Wang Fu (). When the plot was uncovered, the eunuchs arrested
Empress Dowager Dou () and Chen Fan. General Zhang Huan () favoured the eunuchs. He and his troops confronted Dou Wu and his retainers at the palace gate where each side shouted accusations of treason against the other. When the retainers gradually deserted Dou Wu, he was forced to commit suicide. Under
Emperor Ling () the eunuchs had the partisan prohibitions renewed and expanded, while also auctioning off top government offices. Many affairs of state were entrusted to the eunuchs
Zhao Zhong () and
Zhang Rang () while Emperor Ling spent much of his time
roleplaying with concubines and participating in military parades.
End of the Han dynasty in 219 AD, the penultimate year of the Han dynasty barbarians, with bows and arrows and wearing pointed hats (left), against Han troops; Eastern Han-era, Tsangshan tomb, Linyi; also visible in the
Yinan tombs. The Partisan Prohibitions were repealed during the
Yellow Turban Rebellion and
Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion in 184 AD, largely because the court did not want to continue to alienate a significant portion of the
gentry class who might otherwise join the rebellions. The Yellow Turbans and Five-Pecks-of-Rice adherents belonged to two different hierarchical
Taoist religious societies led by faith healers
Zhang Jue () and
Zhang Lu (), respectively. Zhang Lu's rebellion, in what is now northern
Sichuan and southern
Shaanxi, was not quelled until 215 AD. Zhang Jue's massive rebellion across eight
provinces was annihilated by Han forces within a year; however, the following decades saw much smaller recurrent uprisings. Although the Yellow Turbans were defeated, many generals appointed during the crisis never disbanded their assembled militias and used these troops to amass power outside of the collapsing imperial authority. General-in-chief
He Jin (), half-brother to
Empress He (), plotted with
Yuan Shao () to overthrow the eunuchs by having several generals march to the outskirts of the capital. There, in a written petition to Empress He, they demanded the eunuchs' execution. After a period of hesitation, Empress He consented. When the eunuchs discovered this, however, they had her brother He Miao () rescind the order. The eunuchs assassinated He Jin on 22 September 189. Yuan Shao then besieged Luoyang's Northern Palace while his brother
Yuan Shu () besieged the Southern Palace. On September 25 both palaces were breached and approximately two thousand eunuchs were killed. Zhang Rang had previously fled with
Emperor Shao () and his brother Liu Xie—the future
Emperor Xian of Han (). While being pursued by the Yuan brothers, Zhang committed suicide by jumping into the Yellow River. General
Dong Zhuo () found the young emperor and his brother wandering in the countryside. He escorted them safely back to the capital and was made
Minister of Works, taking control of Luoyang and forcing Yuan Shao to flee. After Dong Zhuo demoted Emperor Shao and promoted his brother Liu Xie as Emperor Xian, Yuan Shao led a coalition of former officials and officers against Dong, who burned Luoyang to the ground and resettled the court at Chang'an in May 191 AD. Dong Zhuo later poisoned Emperor Shao. Dong was killed by his adopted son
Lü Bu () in a plot hatched by
Wang Yun (). Emperor Xian fled from Chang'an in 195 AD to the ruins of Luoyang. Xian was persuaded by
Cao Cao (155–220 AD), then Governor of Yan Province in modern western
Shandong and eastern
Henan, to move the capital to
Xuchang in 196 AD. Yuan Shao challenged Cao Cao for control over the emperor. Yuan's power was greatly diminished after Cao defeated him at the
Battle of Guandu in 200 AD. After Yuan died, Cao killed Yuan Shao's son
Yuan Tan (173–205 AD), who had fought with his brothers over the family inheritance. His brothers
Yuan Shang and
Yuan Xi were killed in 207 AD by
Gongsun Kang (), who sent their heads to Cao Cao. After Cao's defeat at the naval
Battle of Red Cliffs in 208 AD, China was divided into three spheres of influence, with Cao Cao dominating the north,
Sun Quan (182–252 AD) dominating the south, and
Liu Bei (161–223 AD) dominating the west. Cao Cao died in March 220 AD. By December his son
Cao Pi (187–226 AD) had Emperor Xian relinquish the throne to him and is known posthumously as
Emperor Wen of Wei. This formally ended the Han dynasty and initiated an age of conflict between the
Three Kingdoms:
Cao Wei,
Eastern Wu, and
Shu Han. ==Culture and society==