Language written in
Pallava script. Dating back from 683, it is one of the oldest surviving Malay written artefact. The Malay language is one of the most prominent languages of the world, especially of the
Austronesian family. Variants and dialects of Malay are used as an official language in
Brunei,
Malaysia,
Indonesia and
Singapore. The language is also spoken in southern
Thailand,
Cocos Islands,
Christmas Island,
Sri Lanka. It is spoken natively by approximately 33 million people throughout the
Malay Archipelago and is used as a second language by an estimated 220 million. The oldest form of Malay is descended from the
Proto-Malayo-Polynesian language spoken by the earliest
Austronesian settlers in Southeast Asia. This form would later evolve into
Old Malay when Indian cultures and religions began penetrating the region. Old Malay contained some terms last until today, but remained unintelligible to modern speakers, while the modern language is already largely recognisable in written
Classical Malay, which the oldest form dating back to 1303 CE. Malay evolved into Classical Malay through the gradual influx of numerous Arabic and Persian vocabulary when Islam made its way to the region, changing significantly in the process. Initially, Classical Malay was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Malay kingdoms of Southeast Asia. One of these dialects, that was developed in the literary tradition of the Malacca Sultanate in the 15th century, eventually became predominant. The Malaccan era was marked with the transformation of the Malay language into an Islamic language, in similar fashion to Arabic, Persian, Urdu and Swahili. An adapted Arabic script called
Jawi was used replacing the Kawi script, Islamic religious and cultural terminologies were abundantly assimilated, discarding many Hindu-Buddhist words, and Malay became the language of Islamic medium of instruction and dissemination throughout Southeast Asian region. At the height of Malacca's power in the 15th century, the Classical Malay spread beyond the traditional Malay speaking world and resulted in a
lingua franca that was called
Bahasa Melayu pasar ("Bazaar Malay") or
Bahasa Melayu rendah ("Low Malay") as opposed to the
Bahasa Melayu tinggi ("High Malay") of Malacca. It is generally believed that
Bazaar Malay was a pidgin and the most important development, however, has been that pidgin creolised, creating several new languages such as the
Ambonese Malay,
Manado Malay and
Betawi language. European writers of the 17th and 18th centuries, such as
Tavernier,
Thomassin and
Werndly describe Malay as "
language of the learned in all the Indies, like Latin in Europe". It is also the most widely used during British and Dutch colonial era in the Malay Archipelago. The reversed was seen in the
Spanish East Indies, where mass
latinisation of the archipelago during the colonial years resulted the historical
coup de grâce of the Malay language in the Philippines. The dialect of
Johor Sultanate, the direct successor of Malacca, became the standard speech among Malays in
Singapore and
Malaysia, and it formed the original basis for the standardised
Indonesian language. Beginning from the 17th century, as a result of British and Dutch colonisation, Jawi was gradually replaced by the Latin-based
Rumi script which eventually became the official modern script for Malay language in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia, and co-official script in Brunei.
Literature in
Jawi text. Also known as the Kedah Annals, it is an ancient Malay literature that chronicles the bloodline of
Merong Mahawangsa and the foundation of
Kedah. The rich oral literature and classical literature of the Malays contain a great number of portraits of the people, from the
servant to the minister, from the judge to the
Rajas, from the ancient to the very contemporary periods, which together form the amorphous identity of the Malays. Considering the softness and mellifluence of the Malay language, which lends itself easily to the requirements of rhyme and rhythm, the originality and beauty in Malay literature can be assessed in its poetical elements. Among the forms of poetry in Malay literature are – the
Pantun,
Syair and
Gurindam. The earliest form of Malay literature was the
oral literature and its central subjects are traditional
folklore relating to
nature, animals and people. The classical Malay folklore is composed of traditional songs and music, heroic poems, animal fables, ghost stories, past events, fairy tales, symbolic lore, myths and bardic tales. Each of the stories possessed its own energy in terms of character, spirit, backdrop and storytelling and was largely crafted with the intend of happiness, guidance, educating, reminiscing, explaining, among few. The folklore were memorised and passed from one generation of storytellers to the next. Many of these tales were also written down by
penglipur lara (storytellers) for example:
Hikayat Malim Dewa,
Hikayat Malim Deman,
Hikayat Raja Donan,
Hikayat Anggun Cik Tunggal, and
Hikayat Awang Sulung Merah Muda. When Indian influences made their way to the Malay Archipelago around 2000 years ago, Malay literature began incorporating Indian elements. Literature of this time is mostly translations of
Sanskrit literature and romances, or at least some productions inspired by such, and is full of allusions to
Hindu mythology. Probably to this early time may be traced such works as
Hikayat Seri Rama (a free translation of the
Ramayana),
Hikayat Bayan Budiman (an adaptation of
Śukasaptati) and
Hikayat Panca Tanderan (an adaptation of
Hitopadesha). The era of classical Malay literature started after the arrival of Islam and the invention of
Jawi script (Arabic based Malay script). Since then, Islamic beliefs and concepts began to make its mark on Malay literature. The
Terengganu Inscription Stone, which is dated to 1303, is the earliest known narrative Malay writing. The stone is inscribed with an account of history, law, and
romance in Jawi script. At its height, the Malacca Sultanate was not only the center of Islamisation, but also the center of Malay cultural expressions including literature. During this era, notable
Middle Eastern literary works were translated and religious books were written in Malay language. Among famous translated works are
Hikayat Muhammad Hanafiah and
Hikayat Amir Hamzah. The rise of Malay literature during the period was also penned by other homegrown literary composition coloured by mystical
Sufism of the middle-east, the notable works of
Hamzah Fansuri such as
Asrar al-Arifin (
Rahsia Orang yang Bijaksana; The Secret of the Wise),
Sharab al-Asyikin (
Minuman Segala Orang yang Berahi; The Drink of All the Passionate) and
Zinat al-Muwahidin (
Perhiasan Sekalian Orang yang Mengesakan; The Ornament of All the Devoted) can be seen as the
magna opera of the era. (
Shadow play) that narrated the heroic tale of
Hikayat Seri Rama The most important piece of Malay literary works is perhaps the famed
Malay Annals or Sulalatus Salatin. It was called "the most famous, distinctive and best of all Malay literary works" by one of the most prominent scholars in Malay studies,
Sir Richard O. Winstedt. The exact date of its composition and the identity of its original author are uncertain, but under the order of
Sultan Alauddin Riaayat Shah III of Johor in 1612,
Tun Sri Lanang oversaw the editorial and compilation process of the Malay Annals. In the 19th century, the Malay literature received some notable additions, including
Kitab Ilmu Bedil (Book of Traditional Weaponry) that provides valuable details of traditional Malay ammunition and weaponry. The era also witnessed the wider usage of Malay
medical journals, known as
Kitab Tib. These works are indeed important as it serve as references to the Malay knowledge and technology during the classical era. Other 19th century Malay texts were written in Sumatra, these include the
Kitab Pengetahuan Bahasa (Book of Linguistic Knowledge) by Raja Ali Haji and
Perhimpunan Gunawan bagi Laki-Laki dan Perempuan (A Compendium of Charms for Men and Women) by Khatijah Terung, a wife of Raja Haji Abdullah bin Raja Hassan. The same century also witnessed a monumental shift in the Malay literature through writings of
Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir, a famous
Malacca-born
munshi of
Singapore. Since this era, the Malays are considered as
ethnoreligious group and traditionally had a close identification with Islam and they have not changed their religion since. and the most important Malay festivals are those of
Islamic origin —
Hari Raya Aidilfitri,
Hari Raya Aidiladha,
Awal Muharram, and
Maulidur Rasul. It is considered
apostasy for Malays to convert out of Islam in Malaysia and Brunei. However, there are a number of ethnic Malays living outside of these countries have also embraced other religions legally under the law.
Architecture 's Palace, which was built from information and data obtained from the
Malay Annals. This historical document had references to the construction and the architecture of palaces during the era of
Sultan Mansur Shah, who ruled from 1458 to 1477. Various cultural influences, notably
Chinese, Indian and Europeans, played a major role in forming Malay architecture. Until recent time, wood was the principal material used for all Malay traditional buildings. However, numerous stone structures were also discovered particularly the religious complexes from the time of
Srivijaya and ancient
isthmian Malay kingdoms.
Candi Muara Takus and
Candi Muaro Jambi in
Sumatra are among the examples that associated with the architectural elements of Srivijaya Empire. However, Srivijayan architecture was mostly represented at
Chaiya (now a province in
Thailand) in the Malay Peninsula, which was an important centre during the Srivijaya period. The type of structure consists of a cell-chamber to house the
Buddha image and the summit of structure was erected in the form of
stupa with successive, superimposed terraces which is the best example at
Wat Pra Borom That of Chaiya. There is also evidence of Hindu shrines or
Candi around south
Kedah between the
mount Jerai and the
Muda River valley, an area known as
Bujang Valley. Within an area of about 350 square kilometres, 87 early historic religious sites have been reported and there are 12
candis located on mountain tops, a feature which suggests may derive from pre-historic Malay beliefs regarding sanctity of high places. palatial residence as seen in the
Muzium Negara. Setul was a historical Malay kingdom that existed between 1808 and 1915 in the northern Malay Peninsula. Early reference on Malay architecture in the Malay Peninsula can be found in several Chinese records. A 7th-century Chinese account tells of Buddhist pilgrims calling at
Langkasuka and mentioned the city as being surrounded by a wall on which towers had been built and was approached through double gates. Another 7th-century account of a special Chinese envoy to
Red Earth Kingdom in the Malay Peninsula, recorded that the capital city had three gates more than a hundred paces apart, which were decorated with paintings of Buddhist themes and female spirits. The first detailed description of Malay architecture was on the great wooden
Istana of
Mansur Shah of Malacca (reigned 1458–1477). and are often embellished with elaborate
wood carvings. The beauty and quality of Malay wood carvings were meant to serve as visual indicators of the social rank and status of the owners themselves. The
Salinger House, which won the 1998 Aga Khan Architectural Award, is a modern example of this traditional design. Throughout many decades, the traditional Malay architecture has been influenced by
Bugis and
Java from the south,
Siamese,
British,
Arab and
Indian from the north,
Portuguese,
Dutch,
Aceh and
Minangkabau from the west and
Southern Chinese from the east.
Visual art , a giant mythical bird constructed for the grand
circumcision parade of the
Kelantanese prince Wood carving is a part of classical Malay
visual arts. The Malays had traditionally adorned their monuments, boats, weapons, tombs, musical instrument, and utensils by motives of flora, calligraphy, geometry and cosmic features. The art is done by partially removing the wood using sharp tools and following specific patterns, composition and orders. The art form, known as
ukir, is hailed as an act of devotion of the craftsmen to the creator and a gift to his fellowmen. The art form is mainly attributed to the abundance of timber on the
Malay Archipelago and also by the skilfulness of the woodcarvers that have allowed the Malays to practice woodcarving as a craft. The natural tropical settings where flora and fauna are abundant has inspired the motives to be depicted in abstract or stylised form into the timber board. With the coming of Islam, geometric and
Islamic calligraphy form were introduced in the wood carving. The woods used are typically from tropical hardwood species which is known to be durable and can resist the attacks of fungi, power-boots beetles and termites. A typical Malay traditional houses or mosque would have been adorned with more than 20 carved components. The carving on the walls and the panels allow the air breeze to circulate effectively in and out of the building and can let the sunlight illuminate the interior of the structure. At the same time, the shadow cast by the panels would also create a shadow based on the motives adding the beauty on the floor. Thus, the carved components perform both functional and aesthetic purposes.
Pottery '', a classic Malay
jar from
Kuala Kangsar,
Perak, Malaysia Under the Malay culture,
pottery is not solely witnessed as a mere household
utensil. It is perceived as a work of
art, a paradigm of talent, embroidered with aesthetic, legacy, perseverance and religious devotion. The Malay earthen is usually unglazed, with the ornamental designs were carved when the pottery is semi-dried during its construction process. According to several studies, the native Malay pottery industry has developed indigenously from the period of great antiquity and has since encapsulates a high-level of culture sophistication. It also has been noted that the design features of the Malay pottery suggested the absence of the
foreign influence prior to the 19th century, a paradox considering the vast cultural contact between the Malays and the outside world. While
Nasi Minyak and
Nasi Hujan Panas, rice broiled with ghee and spices is hailed as a ceremonial dish for special occasions, especially during the traditional Malay weddings.
Performing arts dancers performing the
Mak Yong (c. 19th century). In 2005, it received recognition as being among the
masterpieces of the oral and intangible heritage of humanity by
UNESCO. The Malays have diverse kinds of music and dance which are fusions of different cultural influences. Typical genres range from traditional Malay folk dances dramas like
Mak Yong to the Arab-influenced
Zapin dances. Choreographed movements also vary from simple steps and tunes in
Dikir barat to the complicated moves in
Joget Gamelan. Traditional Malay music is basically percussive. Various kinds of
gongs provide the beat for many dances. There are also drums of various sizes, ranging from the large
rebana ubi used to punctuate important events to the small
jingled-rebana (
frame drum) used as an accompaniment to vocal recitations in religious ceremonies.
Nobat music became part of the
Royal Regalia of Malay courts since the arrival of Islam in the 12th century and only performed in important court ceremonies. Its orchestra includes the sacred and highly revered instruments of
nehara (
kettledrums),
gendang (double-headed drums),
nafiri (trumpet),
serunai (
oboe), and sometimes a knobbed
gong and a pair of
cymbals. Indian influences are strong in a traditional
shadow play known as
Wayang Kulit where stories from Hindu epics;
Ramayana &
Mahabharata form the main repertoire. There are four distinctive types of shadow puppet theatre that can be found in Malay Peninsula;
Wayang Gedek,
Wayang Purwa,
Wayang Melayu and
Wayang Siam. Nonetheless, the art and the storytelling of
Wayang Purwa and
Wayang Siam denote a regional influence in fused with the Javanese and Siamese respectively, while
Wayang Melayu and
Wayang Gedek narrated a more autochthonously Malay form and fashion. Other well-known Malay performing arts are;
Bangsawan theatre,
Dondang Sayang love ballad and
Mak Inang dance from Malacca Sultanate,
Jikey and
Mek Mulung theatre from
Kedah,
Asyik dance and
Menora dance drama from
Patani and
Kelantan,
Ulek mayang and
Rodat dance from Terengganu,
Boria theatre from
Penang,
Canggung dance from
Perlis,
Mukun narrative songs from
Brunei and
Sarawak,
Gending Sriwijaya from
Palembang,
Serampang Dua Belas dance from
Serdang. For the Malay silverware, the works of silver are fairly known for its sophisticated and fine designs. It is usually crafted by repousse,
filigree and
niello techniques. The common traditional Malay items usually made of silver include pillow ends, belt buckles, matt corners, stoppers for water vessels, Keris sheaths and tobacco boxes. The
Awan Larat (cloud patterns) and
Kerawang (Vegetal motives) are among the popular designs for Malay decorative silver pillow ends and tobacco boxes. By the time of
Malacca in the 15th century, the evolution of the Malay Keris was perfected and possession of a Keris came to be regarded as in integral part of Malay culture, becoming a philosophical symbol, juxtapositioned in prestige, craftsmanship, masculinity and honour. During the classical era, a Malay man was not seen without a Keris outside of his house. The absence of a Keris on a man was frowned upon, perceived as if he were parading naked to the public. Traditionally, a man of Malay extraction would own three types of Keris:
Keris Pusaka (the Dynasty Keris, inherited from one generation to another),
Keris Pangkat (the Status Keris, awarded in right of his position in Malay society) and
Keris Perjuangan Dirinya (the Struggle Keris, literally defined as his personal Keris). There are many strict rules, regulations and taboos to be adhered to in owning a Keris. The blade of a Kris is usually coated with poisonous arsenic, thus crafting an excruciatingly lethal blade for its prey. Traditionally, each Keris is also regarded as possessing a
spirit, known as
semangat. Special rituals were to be conducted to nurture, preserve and guard the "soul" of the weapon. The spiritual approach is usually held every
Malam Jumaat (Thursday night), with the blade is being purified with
lime and smoked with
incense, dedicated prayers and devoted mantras would be also recited upon to complement the mystic ritual. of an
Istinggar, a classical Malay
matchlock gun as displayed in
Muzium Warisan Melayu (
Malay Heritage Museum),
Serdang,
Selangor The Malays and Javanese are abided by contrasting philosophical
values pertaining to Keris-wearing. Traditionally, a Malay would embedded his Keris from the front, an honour that the weapon is more paramount compared to the wearer and a constant reminder that one is always equipped to combat the nemesis. The Javanese however, adhered to the principle that he should be more cautious and the Keris may solely be exercised during the time of need, thus cladding their Keris from behind. The Javanese also believed that by carrying their weapon that position, it would confuse the enemy. Paradoxically, both groups shared a similar ideology addressing the
hilt of the Keris. If the hilt faced up front, it serves as a testament that the man is prepared for a fight. Nevertheless, if the hilt is turned behind, it is an oath that the person is embracing for a
reconciliation. There are also a plethora of other forms of weaponry in the Malay arsenal, all were nevertheless equally revered in a correlating manner as the Keris. The Malays would classified the traditional weapons under 7 different structures:
Tuju ("Direct", the large and heavy artillery, including the Malay
cannons of
Meriam,
Ekor Lotong,
Lela and
Rentaka),
Bidik ("
Gun", a weapon with metal tube propelled by an
ammunition, with the Malay forms of
Terakor and
Istingar),
Setubuh ("A body", weapon in the similar dimension of a
human body, referred to the Malay
spears of
Tongkat Panjang and
Lembing),
Selengan ("An arm", a large
sabre from the length of the shoulders to the tips of the fingers, constituting the Malay sabre of
Pedang and
Sundang),
Setangan ("A hand", a sword with the diameter measured from the elbow to the 3 fingers, including
Badik Panjang and
Tekpi),
Sepegang ("A hold", smaller than the
Setangan, a
dagger with
Keris and
Badik in the category) and
Segenggam ("A grab", the smallest in the category, the hand-sized
blade, including
Lawi Ayam,
Kerambit,
Kuku Macan and
Kapak Binjai). Other items in the traditional Malay weaponry includes
sumpit (
Blowpipe) and
Busur dan Panah (
Bow and Arrow), which are distinct from the seven class of armaments. Additionally, the Malays also would deploy
Zirah, a type of
Baju Besi (
armour) and
Perisai (
shield) as defence mechanisms during the
armed conflict.
Traditional games -maker's workshop in
Kelantan, Malaysia. This peculiar type of kite can be found in the northeast coast of the Malay Peninsula. Traditional Malay games usually require craft skills and manual dexterity and can be traced their origins since the days of Malacca Sultanate.
Sepak Raga and
kite flying are among traditional games that were mentioned in the
Malay Annals being played by nobilities and royalties of the Malay sultanate.
Sepak Raga is one of the most popular Malay games and has been played for centuries. Traditionally, Sepak raga was played in circle by kicking and keeps aloft the rattan ball using any part of the body except the arms and hands. It is now recognised as
Malaysia's national sport and played in the international sporting events such as
Asian Games and
Southeast Asian Games. Other popular game is
Gasing spinning which usually played after the
harvest season. A great skill of
craftsmanship is required to produce the most competitive
Gasing (top), some of which spin for two hours at a time. Possibly the most popular Malay games is the
Wau (a unique kind of kite from the east coast of the Malay Peninsula) or kite flying. Wau-flying competitions take place with judges awarding points for craftsmanship (
Wau are beautiful, colourful objects set on bamboo frames), sound (all
Malay kites are designed to create a specific sound as they are buffeted about in the wind) and altitude. The Malays also have a variant of
Mancala board game known as
Congkak. The game is played by moving stones, marbles, beads or shells around a wooden board consisting of twelve or more holes. Mancala is acknowledged as the oldest game in the world and can be traced its origin since
Ancient Egypt. As the game dispersed around the globe, every culture has invented its own variation including the Malays.
Names and titles Malay personal names are complex, reflecting the hierarchical nature of the society, and titles are considered important. Naming has undergone tremendous change, evolving with the times to reflect the different influences that the Malays been subjected to over the ages. Although some Malay names still retain parts of their indigenous
Malay and
Sanskrit influences, as Muslims, Malays have long favoured
Arabic names as marks of their religion. Malay names are
patronymic and can consiste of up to four parts; a title, a given name, the family name, and a description of the individual's male parentage. Some given names and father's names can be composed of double names and even triple names, thereby generating a longer name. For example, one Malaysian national footballer has the full name
Mohd Zaquan Adha Abdul Radzak, where 'Mohd Zaquan Adha' is his triple given name and 'Abdul Radzak' is his father's double given name. In addition to naming system, the
Malay language also has an elaborate system of
titles and
honorifics, which are still extensively used in
Malaysia and
Brunei. By applying these
Malay titles to a normal Malay name, a more complex name is produced. The former
Prime Minister of Malaysia has the full name
Dato' Seri Mohd Najib bin Tun Haji Abdul Razak, where 'Dato' Seri' is a Malay title of honour, 'Mohd Najib' is his personal name, 'bin' is derived from an Arabic word Ibnu meaning "son of" if in case of daughter it is replaced with binti, an Arabic word "bintun" meaning "daughter of", introduces his father's titles and names, 'Tun' is a higher honour, 'Haji' denotes his father's
Hajj pilgrimage to
Mecca, and 'Abdul Razak' is his father's personal name. The more extremely complex Malay names however, belong to the Malay royalty. The former
Yang di-Pertuan Agong of
Malaysia had the full regnal name
Kebawah Duli Yang Maha Mulia Seri Paduka Baginda Yang di-Pertuan Agong Al-Sultan Abdullah Ri'ayatuddin Al-Mustafa Billah Shah ibni Almarhum Sultan Haji Ahmad Shah Al-Musta'in Billah, while the reigning
Sultan of Brunei is officially known as
Kebawah Duli Yang Maha Mulia Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah ibni Al-Marhum Sultan Haji Omar 'Ali Saifuddien Sa'adul Khairi Waddien. ==Sub-ethnic groups==