Achaemenid Empire coin, Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology,
Bodrum,
Turkey. , today known as Sart in
Turkey. in
Bodrum, one of the
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. in
Istanbul Archaeology Museums. By 550 BCE, the
Median Empire, which had existed for barely a hundred years, was suddenly torn apart by a Persian rebellion. As
Lydia's king,
Croesus had a large amount of wealth which to draw from, and he used it to go on the offensive against the
Persian king
Cyrus the Great. In the end,
Croesus was thrust back west and Cyrus burned the Lydian capital
Sardis, taking control of Lydia in 546 BCE. The remaining kingdom of
Ionia and several cities of Lydia still refused to fall under
Persian domination, and prepared defenses to fight them and sending for aid from
Sparta. Since no aid was promised except for a warning to Cyrus from their emissary, eventually their stance was abandoned and they submitted, or they fled as in citizens from
Phocaea to
Corsica or citizens from
Teos to
Abdera in
Thrace. The
Achaemenid Persian Empire, thus founded by Cyrus the Great, continued its expansion under the
Persia king
Darius the Great, in which the
satrap system of local governors continued to be used and upgraded and other governmental upgrades were carried out. A revolt by
Naxos in 502 BCE prompted
Aristagoras of
Miletus to devise a grandiose plan by which he would give a share of
Naxos's wealth to
Artaphernes, satrap of Lydia, in return for his aid in quashing the revolt. The failure of Aristagoras in fulfilling his promise of rewards and his conduct disturbed the Persians, so much so that he resorted to convincing his fellow Ionians to revolt against the Persians. This revolt, known as the
Ionian Revolt, spread across Anatolia, and with
Athenian aid, Aristagoras held firm for a time, despite the loss in the
Battle of Ephesus. The burning of
Sardis in 498 BCE enraged
Darius so much that he swore revenge upon
Athens. This event brought down the hammer upon Aristagoras as the Persian army swept through Ionia, re-taking city by city. It was the eventual
Battle of Lade outside
Miletus in 494 BCE that put an end to the
Ionian Revolt once and for all. Although the
Persian Empire had official control of the Carians as a satrap, the appointed local ruler
Hecatomnus took advantage of his position. He gained for his family an autonomous hand in control of the province by providing the
Persians with regular tribute, avoiding the look of deception. His son
Mausolus continued in this manner, and expanded upon the groundwork laid by his father. He first removed the official capital of the satrap from
Mylasa to
Halicarnassus, gaining a strategic naval advantage as the new capital was on the ocean. On this land he built a strong fortress and a works by which he could build up a strong navy. He shrewdly used this power to guarantee protection for the citizens of
Chios,
Kos, and
Rhodes as they proclaimed independence from
Athenian Greece.
Mausolus did not live to see his plans realized fully, and his position went to his widow
Artemisia. The local control over Caria remained in
Hecatomnus's family for another 20 years before the arrival of
Alexander the Great.
Hellenistic Anatolia , 2nd century CE.
Alexander the Great In 336 BCE, King
Philip of Macedon was unexpectedly killed, making his son
Alexander the new ruler of
Macedon as he was very popular. He immediately went to work, raising a force large enough to go up against the
Persians, gathering a navy large enough to counter any threats by their powerful navy. Landing on the shores of Anatolia near
Sestos on the
Gallipoli in 334 BCE,
Alexander first faced the
Persian army in the
Battle of the Granicus, in which the
Persians were effectively routed. Using the victory as a springboard for success,
Alexander turned his attention to the rest of the western coast, liberating
Lydia and
Ionia in quick succession. The eventual fall of
Miletus led to the brilliant strategy by
Alexander to defeat the
Persian navy by taking every city along the Mediterranean instead of initiating a very high-risk battle on the sea. By reducing this threat,
Alexander turned inland, rolling through
Phyrgia,
Cappadocia, and finally
Cilicia, before reaching
Mount Amanus. Scouts for
Alexander found the
Persian army, under its king
Darius III, advancing through the plains of
Issus in search of
Alexander. At this moment,
Alexander realized that the terrain favored his smaller army, and the
Battle of Issus began.
Darius's army was effectively squeezed by the
Macedonians, leading to not only an embarrassing defeat for
Darius, but that he fled back across the
Euphrates river, leaving the rest of his family in
Alexander's hands. Thus, Anatolia was freed from the
Persian yoke for good.
Wars of the Diadochi and division of Alexander's empire In June 323 BCE,
Alexander died suddenly, leaving a power vacuum in
Macedon, putting all he had worked for at risk. Being that his half-brother
Arrhidaeus was unable to rule effectively due to a serious disability, a succession of wars over the rights to his conquests were fought known as the Wars of the
Diadochi.
Perdiccas, a high-ranking officer of the cavalry, and later
Antigonus, the
Phrygian
satrap, prevailed over the other contenders of
Alexander's empire in Asia for a time.
Ptolemy, the governor of Egypt,
Lysimachus, and
Seleucus, strong leaders of
Alexander's, consolidated their positions after the
Battle of Ipsus, in which their common rival
Antigonus was defeated. The former empire of
Alexander was divided as such:
Ptolemy gained territory in southern
Anatolia, much of
Egypt and the
Levant, which combined to form the
Ptolemaic Empire;
Lysimachus controlled western
Anatolia and
Thrace, while Seleucus claimed the rest of
Anatolia as the
Seleucid Empire. Only the kingdom of
Pontus under
Mithridates I managed to gain their independence in
Anatolia due to the fact that Antigonus had been a common enemy.
Seleucid Empire Seleucus I Nicator first created a capital city over the span of 12 years (299–287 BCE) worthy of his personage,
Antioch, named after his father
Antiochus. He concentrated also on creating a large standing army, and also divided his empire into 72
satrapies for easier administration. After a peaceful beginning, a rift occurred between
Lysimachus and Seleucus that led to open warfare in 281 BCE. Even though Seleucus had managed to defeat his former friend and gain his territory at the
Battle of Corupedium, it cost him his life as he was assassinated by
Ptolemy Keraunos, future king of
Macedon, in
Lysimachia. After the death of Seleucus, the empire he left faced many trials, both from internal and external forces.
Antiochus I fought off an attack from the
Gauls successfully, but could not defeat the King of
Pergamon Eumenes I in 262 BCE, guaranteeing
Pergamon's independence.
Antiochus II named Theos, or "divine", was poisoned by his first wife, who in turn poisoned
Berenice Phernophorus, second wife of
Antiochus and the daughter of
Ptolemy III Euergetes.
Antiochus II's son from his first wife,
Seleucus II Callinicus, ended up as ruler of the
Seleucids after this tragedy. These turn of events made Ptolemy III very angry, and led to the invasion of the empire (the
Third Syrian War) in 246 BCE. This invasion leads to victory for Ptolemy III at
Antioch and
Seleucia, and he grants the lands of
Phrygia to
Pontus's
Mithridates II in 245 BCE as a wedding gift.
Parthia and Pergamon before 200 BCE '' representing the defeat of the
Galatians by
Attalus I. Events in the east showed the fragile nature of the
Seleucids as a
Bactrian-inspired revolt in
Parthia begun by its
satrap Andragoras in 245 BCE led to the loss of territory bordering
Persia. This was coupled with an unexpected invasion of northern
Parthia by the nomadic
Parni in 238 BCE and
a subsequent occupation of the whole of Parthia by one of their leaders,
Tiridates.
Antiochus II Theos of the
Seleucids failed to end the rebellion, and therefore a new kingdom was created, the
Parthian Empire, under Tiridates's brother
Arsaces I. Parthia extended to the
Euphrates river at the height of its power. The kingdom of
Pergamon under the
Attalid dynasty was an independent kingdom established after the rule of
Philetaerus by his nephew
Eumenes I. Eumenes enlarged Pergamon to include parts of
Mysia and
Aeolis, and held tightly onto the ports of Elaia and
Pitane.
Attalus I, successor of
Eumenes I, remained active outside of the boundaries of Pergamon. He refused protection payment to the
Galatians and won a fight against them in 230 BCE, and then defeated
Antiochus Hierax three years later in order to secure nominal control over Anatolia under the
Seleucids. The victory was not to last as
Seleucus III reestablished control of his empire, but Attalus was allowed to retain control of former territories of Pergamon. The dealings with
Attalus proved to be the last time the
Seleucids had any meaningful success in Anatolia as the Roman Empire lay on the horizon. After that victory,
Seleucus's heirs would never again expand their empire. before the
Mithridatic War, 90 BCE. The interior of Anatolia had been relatively stable despite occasional incursions by the
Galatians until the rise of the kingdoms of
Pontus and
Cappadocia in the 2nd century BCE.
Cappadocia under
Ariarathes IV initially was allied with the
Seleucids in their war against Rome, but he soon changed his mind and repaired relations with them by marriage and his conduct. His son,
Ariarathes V Philopator, continued his father's policy of allying with Rome and even joined with them in battle against
Prusias I of
Bithynia when he died in 131 BCE.
Pontus had been an independent kingdom since the rule of
Mithridates when the threat of
Macedon had been removed. Despite several attempts by the
Seleucid Empire to defeat
Pontus, independence was maintained. When Rome became involved in Anatolian affairs under
Pharnaces I, an alliance was formed that guaranteed protection for the kingdom. The other major kingdom in Anatolia,
Bithynia, established by
Nicomedes I at
Nicomedia, always maintained good relations with Rome. Even under the hated
Prusias II of
Bithynia when that relationship was strained it did not cause much trouble. Mithridates then marched into the Roman province of Asia, where he persuaded
Greeks to slaughter as many
Italians as possible (the
Asiatic Vespers). Despite a power struggle within Rome itself, consul
Cornelius Sulla went to Anatolia to defeat the
Pontian king.
Sulla defeated him thoroughly in and left
Mithridates with only
Pontus in the
Treaty of Dardanos.
Christianity in Anatolia during Roman times lived and buried in
Hierapolis,
Turkey Jewish influences in Anatolia were changing the religious makeup of the region as Rome consolidated its power. In about 210 BCE,
Antiochus III of the
Seleucid Empire relocated 2,000 families of Jews from
Babylonia to
Lydia and
Phrygia, and this kind of migration continued throughout the remainder of the Empire's existence. Additional clues to the size of the Jewish influence in the area were provided by
Cicero, who noted that a fellow Roman governor had halted the tribute sent to
Jerusalem by Jews in 66 BCE, and the record of
Ephesus, where the people urged
Agrippina to expel
Jews because they were not active in their religious activities. The blossoming religious following of Christianity was evident in Anatolia during the beginning of the 1st century. The letters of
St. Paul in the
New Testament reflect this growth, particularly in his home province of Asia. From his home in
Ephesus from 54 AD to 56 AD he noted that "all they which dwelt in Asia heard the word" and verified the existence of a church in
Colossae as well as
Troas. Later he received letters from
Magnesia and
Tralleis, both of which already had churches, bishops, and official representatives who supported
Ignatius of Antioch. After the references to these institutions by
St. Paul, the
Book of Revelation mentions the
Seven Churches of Asia:
Ephesus, Magnesia,
Thyatira,
Smyrna,
Philadelphia,
Pergamon, and
Laodicea. Even other non-Christians started to take notice of the new religion. In 112 the Roman governor in
Bithynia wrote to the Roman emperor
Trajan that so many different people were flocking to Christianity that it was leaving the temples vacated.
Anatolia before the 4th century: Peace and the Goths lived in
Ephesus,
Turkey.
Ephesus was one of the seven cities addressed in the Book of Revelation. From the rule of
Augustus onwards until that of
Constantine I, Anatolia enjoyed relative peace that allowed itself to grow as a region. The emperor
Augustus removed all debts owed to the Roman Empire by the provinces and protectorates there, making advanced progress possible. Roads were built to connect the larger cities in order to improve trade and transportation, and the abundance of high outputs in agricultural pursuits made more money for everyone involved. Settlement was encouraged, and local governors did not place a heavy burden upon the people with regards to taxation. The wealth gained from the peace and prosperity prevented great tragedy as powerful earthquakes tore through the region, and help was given from the Roman government and other parties. Through it all was produced some of the most respected scientific men of that period–the philosopher
Dio of Bithynia, the medical mind of
Galen from
Pergamon, and the historians
Memnon of Heraclea and
Cassius Dio of
Nicaea. By the middle of the 3rd century, everything that had been built by peace was being threatened by a new enemy, the
Goths. As the inroads to central Europe through Macedonia, Italy, and Germania were all defended successfully by the Romans, the Goths found Anatolia to be irresistible due to its wealth and deteriorating defenses. Using a captured fleet of ships from the Bosphorus and flat-bottomed boats to cross the
Black Sea, they sailed in 256 around the eastern shores, landing in the coastal city of
Trebizond. What ensued was a huge embarrassment for
Pontus — the wealth of the city was absconded, a larger number of ships were confiscated, and they entered the interior without much to turn them back. A second invasion of Anatolia through
Bithynia brought even more terror inland and wanton destruction. The Goths entered
Chalcedon and used it as a base by which to expand their operations, sacking
Nicomedia,
Prusa,
Apamea,
Cius, and
Nicaea in turn. Only the turn of the weather during a fall season kept them from doing any more harm to those outside the realm of the province. The Goths managed a third attack upon not only the coastline of western Anatolia, but in Greece and Italy as well. Despite the Romans under their emperor
Valerian finally turning them away, it did not stop the Goths from first destroying the
Temple of Diana in
Ephesus and the city itself in 263. ==Byzantine Anatolia==