in the '''', 1493.
Islamic astronomers began just before the 9th century to collect and translate
Indian,
Persian and
Greek astronomical texts, adding their own astronomy and enabling later, particularly European astronomy to build on. Symbolic for the post-classical period, a period of an increasing trans-regional literary culture, particularly in the sciences, spreading and building on methods of science. The post-classical period, dated roughly from 500 to 1500 CE, was characterized by the rise and spread of major religions while civilization expanded to new parts of the world and trade between societies intensified. From the 10th to 13th centuries, the
Medieval Warm Period in the northern hemisphere aided agriculture and led to population growth in parts of Europe and Asia. It was followed by the
Little Ice Age, which, along with the plagues of the 14th century, put downward pressure on the population of Eurasia. The post-classical period encompasses the
early Muslim conquests, the
Islamic Golden Age, and the commencement and expansion of the
Arab slave trade, followed by the
Mongol invasions and the founding of the Ottoman Empire. South Asia had a series of
middle kingdoms, followed by the establishment of
Islamic empires in India. In West Africa, the
Mali and
Songhai Empires rose. On the southeast coast of Africa, Arabic ports were established where gold,
spices, and other commodities were traded. This allowed Africa to join the Southeast Asia trading system, bringing it contact with Asia; this resulted in the
Swahili culture. China experienced the relatively successive Sui, Tang,
Song,
Yuan, and early
Ming dynasties. Middle Eastern trade routes along the Indian Ocean, and the Silk Road through the
Gobi Desert, provided limited economic and cultural contact between Asian and European civilizations.
Aztecs, Maya, and
Inca reached their zenith.
West and Central Asia in
Damascus Before the advent of Islam in the 7th century, the Middle East was dominated by the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires, which frequently fought each other for control of several disputed regions. The
birth of Islam created a new contender that quickly surpassed both of these empires.
Muhammad, the founder of Islam, initiated the
early Muslim conquests in the 7th century. The subsequent
Abbasid Caliphate oversaw the Islamic Golden Age, an era of learning, science, and invention during which
philosophy,
art, and
literature flourished. Islamic civilization expanded both by conquest and based on its merchant economy. Merchants brought goods and their Islamic faith to
China,
India,
Southeast Asia, and
Africa. Arab domination of the Middle East ended in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the
Seljuk Turks, migrating south from the Turkic homelands. The Seljuks were challenged by Europe during the
Crusades, a series of religious wars aimed at rolling back Muslim territory and regaining control of the
Holy Land. The Crusades were ultimately unsuccessful and served more to weaken the Byzantine Empire. The Turks founded the Ottoman Empire in modern-day Turkey around 1299. From the 10th century, the Abbasid Caliphate's African territory was consumed by the
Fatimid Caliphate centered on Egypt, who were supplanted by the
Ayyubids in the 12th century, and them later by the
Mamluks in the 13th century. In the
Maghreb and
Western Sahara, the
Almoravids dominated from the 11th century, until it was subsumed by the
Almohad Caliphate in the 12th century. The Almohads' collapse gave rise to the
Marinids in Morocco, the
Zayyanids in Algeria, and the
Hafsids in Tunisia. Steppe nomads from Central Asia, such as the
Karluks and
Kipchaks, continued to threaten sedentary societies in the post-classical era, but they also faced incursions from the Arabs and Chinese. In the 8th century, Islam began to penetrate the region and soon became the sole faith of most of the population. From the 9th to 13th centuries, Central Asia was divided among several powerful states, including the
Samanid,
Seljuk, and
Khwarazmian Empires. These states were succeeded by the Mongols in the 13th century. In 1370,
Timur conquered most of the region and founded the
Timurid Empire, which collapsed soon after his death. His descendants retained control of a core area in Central Asia and Iran, overseeing the
Timurid Renaissance of art and architecture.
Europe , France|alt=Cathedral Since at least the 4th century, Christianity has played a
prominent role in shaping the culture, values, and institutions of Western civilization, primarily through Catholicism and later also
Protestantism. Europe during the
Early Middle Ages was characterized by depopulation,
deurbanization, and barbarian invasions, all of which had begun in
late antiquity. The barbarian invaders formed their own new kingdoms in the remains of the Western Roman Empire. Christianity expanded in Western Europe, and monasteries were founded. In the 7th and 8th centuries, the
Franks under the
Carolingian dynasty established an empire covering much of Western Europe; it lasted until the 9th century, when it succumbed to pressure from new invaders—the
Vikings,
Magyars, and Arabs. During the Carolingian era, churches developed a form of musical notation called
neume which became the basis for the modern notation system.
Kievan Rus' expanded from its capital in
Kiev to become the largest state in Europe by the 10th century. In 988,
Vladimir the Great adopted
Orthodox Christianity as the state religion. with the three classes of medieval society: those who prayed (the
clergy), those who fought (the
knights), and those who worked (the
peasantry)|alt=A miniature depicting a tonsured man, a fully armored man wearing a shield, and a man who holds a spade During the
High Middle Ages, which began after 1000, the population of Europe increased as technological and agricultural innovations allowed trade to flourish and crop yields to increase. The establishment of the
feudal system affected the structure of medieval society. It included
manorialism, the organization of peasants into villages that owed rents and labor service to nobles, and
vassalage, a political structure whereby
knights and lower-status nobles owed military service to their overlords in return for the right to rents from lands and manors. Kingdoms became more centralized after the decentralizing effects of the breakup of the
Carolingian Empire. In 1054, the
Great Schism between the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches led to the prominent cultural differences between Western and Eastern Europe. The
Crusades were a series of religious wars waged by Christians to wrest control of the Holy Land from the Muslims and succeeded for long enough to establish some
Crusader states in the
Levant. Intellectual life was marked by
scholasticism and the
founding of universities, while the building of
Gothic cathedrals and churches was one of the outstanding artistic achievements of the age. The Caucasus was fought over in a
series of wars between the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires. However, the two opposing powers became exhausted due to continuous conflict. Hence, the Rashidun Caliphate was able to freely expand into the region during the early Muslim conquests. The Seljuk Turks later subjugated
Armenia and
Georgia in the 11th century. The Mongols subsequently invaded the Caucasus in the 13th century. The
Mongols reached Europe in 1236 and
conquered Kievan Rus', along with briefly invading
Poland and
Hungary.
Lithuania cooperated with the Mongols but remained independent and in the late 14th century formed a
personal union with Poland. The
Late Middle Ages were marked by difficulties and calamities. Famine, plague, and war devastated the population of Western Europe. The
Black Death alone killed approximately 75 to 200 million people between 1347 and 1350. It was one of the deadliest pandemics in human history. Starting in Asia, the disease reached the Mediterranean and Western Europe during the late 1340s, and killed tens of millions of Europeans in six years; between a quarter and a third of the population perished.
Africa constructed during the
Zagwe dynasty in Ethiopia Sub-Saharan Africa was home to many different civilizations. In
Nubia, the
Kingdom of Kush was succeeded by the Christian kingdoms of
Makuria,
Alodia, and
Nobatia. In the 7th century, Makuria conquered Nobatia to become the dominant power in the region and
resisted Muslim expansion. They later entered a severe decline following civil war and
Arab migrations to the Sudan and had disintegrated by the 15th century, giving rise to the
Funj Sultanate. In the
Horn of Africa, Islam spread among the
Somalis. In the
Sahel region of West Africa, the
Ghana Empire formed from between the 2nd and 8th centuries, while from the 7th century the
Gao Empire ruled to its east. Almoravid capture of royal
Aoudaghost led to Ghana's conversion to Islam in the 11th century, and climatic changes led to Ghana's conquest by its vassal
Sosso in the 13th century. Sosso was quickly overthrown by the
Mali Empire who conquered Gao and dominated the
trans-Saharan trade. The
Mossi Kingdoms were established to its south. To the east, the
Kanem–Bornu Empire ruled from the 6th century, and projected power over the
Hausa Kingdoms. The 15th century saw the crumbling of the Mali Empire, with the dominant power in the region becoming the
Songhai Empire centered on
Gao. head from Nigeria|alt=Bronze head In the
forest regions of West Africa, various kingdoms and empires flourished, such as the
Yoruba empires of
Ife and
Oyo, the
Igbo Kingdom of Nri, the
Edo Kingdom of Benin (famous for
its art), the
Dagomba Kingdom of Dagbon, and the
Akan kingdoms of
Bonoman and
Adanse. They came into contact with the Portuguese in the 15th century which saw the start of the
Atlantic slave trade. In the western
Congo Basin by the 13th century there were three main confederations of states: the
Seven Kingdoms,
Mpemba, and one led by
Vungu. In the 14th century the
Kingdom of Kongo emerged and dominated the region. In the northern
Great Lakes, the
Empire of Kitara rose around the 11th century, famed for its
oral traditions. It collapsed in the 15th century following
Luo migrations to the region. On the
Swahili coast the
Swahili city-states thrived off of the
Indian Ocean trade and gradually Islamized, giving rise to the
Kilwa Sultanate from the 10th century. Madagascar was settled by
Austronesian peoples between the 5th and 7th centuries, as societies organized at the behest of
hasina. In Southern Africa, an early kingdom was
Mapungubwe, followed by the
Kingdom of Great Zimbabwe in the 13th century, and the
Mutapa Empire and
Kingdom of Butua in the 15th century.
South Asia ,
Belur, India|alt=Statue After the fall of the Gupta Empire in 550 CE,
North India was divided into a complex and fluid network of smaller kingdoms. Early
Muslim incursions began in the northwest in 711 CE, when the Arab Umayyad Caliphate
conquered much of present-day Pakistan. The Arab military advance was largely halted at that point, but Islam still spread in India, largely due to the influence of Arab merchants along the western coast. Post-classical dynasties in South India included those of the
Chalukyas,
Hoysalas, and Cholas. Literature, architecture, sculpture, and painting flourished under the patronage of these kings. Some of the other important states that emerged in South India during this time included the
Bahmani Sultanate and the
Vijayanagara Empire.
Northeast Asia After a period of relative disunity,
China was reunified by the Sui dynasty in 589, later succeeded by the Tang dynasty in 618. Both dynasties instituted the long-lasting
imperial examination system. China later competed with
Tibet (618–842) for control of areas in Inner Asia. However, the Tang dynasty eventually splintered. After
half a century of turmoil, the Song dynasty reunified much of China. Pressure from nomadic empires to the north became increasingly urgent. By 1127, northern China had been lost to the
Jurchens in the
Jin–Song Wars, and the Mongols
conquered all of China in 1279. After about a century of Mongol Yuan dynasty rule, the ethnic Chinese reasserted control with the founding of the Ming dynasty in 1368. Buddhism was introduced, and there was an emphasis on the adoption of elements of Chinese culture and Confucianism. The
Nara period (710–794) was characterized by the appearance of a nascent
literary culture, as well as the development of Buddhist-inspired artwork and
architecture. The
Heian period (794–1185) saw the peak of imperial power, followed by the rise of militarized clans and the
samurai. It was during the Heian period that
Murasaki Shikibu penned
The Tale of Genji, sometimes considered the world's first novel. From 1185 to 1868, Japan was dominated by powerful regional lords (
daimyos) and the military rule of warlords (
shoguns) such as the
Ashikaga and
Tokugawa shogunates. The emperor remained but did not wield significant influence. Meanwhile, the power of merchants grew. An influential art style known as
ukiyo-e arose during the Tokugawa years, consisting of
woodblock prints which originally depicted famous
courtesans. Post-classical
Korea saw the end of the
Three Kingdoms era, in which the kingdoms of
Goguryeo,
Baekje, and
Silla had competed for hegemony. This period ended when Silla conquered Baekje in 660 and Goguryeo in 668, marking the beginning of the
Northern and Southern States period, with
Unified Silla in the south and
Balhae, a successor state to Goguryeo, in the north. In 892 CE, this arrangement reverted to the
Later Three Kingdoms, with Goguryeo emerging as dominant, unifying the entire peninsula by 936. The founding Goryeo dynasty ruled until 1392, succeeded by the
Joseon dynasty, which ruled for approximately 500 years. In
Mongolia,
Genghis Khan united various Mongol and Turkic tribes under one banner in 1206. The
Mongol Empire expanded from North Asia to comprise all of China and Central Asia, as well as large parts of Russia and the Middle East, to become
the largest contiguous empire in history. After
Möngke Khan died in 1259, the Mongol Empire was
divided into four successor states: the
Yuan Dynasty in China, the
Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia, the
Golden Horde in Eastern Europe and Russia, and the
Ilkhanate in Iran.
Southeast Asia temple complex, Cambodia, early 12th century|alt=Large temple The Southeast Asian polity of
Funan, which had originated in the 2nd century CE, went into decline in the 6th century as Chinese trade routes shifted away from its ports. It was replaced by the
Khmer Empire in 802 CE. The capital city of the
Khmers at
Angkor was the most extensive city in the world before the industrial age and contained
Angkor Wat, the world's largest religious monument. The
Sukhothai (mid-13th century) and
Ayutthaya Kingdoms (1351) were major powers of the
Thais, who were influenced by the Khmers. Starting in the 9th century, the
Pagan Kingdom rose to prominence in modern
Myanmar. Its collapse brought about political fragmentation that ended with the rise of the
Toungoo Empire in the 16th century. Other notable kingdoms of the period include
Srivijaya and
Lavo (both coming into prominence in the 7th century),
Champa and
Hariphunchai (both about 750),
Đại Việt (968),
Lan Na (13th century),
Majapahit (1293),
Lan Xang (1353), and
Ava (1365). Hinduism and Buddhism had been spreading in Southeast Asia since the 1st century CE when, beginning in the 13th century, Islam arrived and made its way to regions such as present-day Indonesia. This period also saw the emergence of the
Malay states, including
Brunei and
Malacca. In the
Philippines, several polities were formed such as
Tondo,
Cebu, and
Butuan.
Oceania ,
Easter Island The
Polynesians, descendants of the
Lapita peoples, colonized vast reaches of
Remote Oceania beginning around 1000 CE. Their voyages resulted in the colonization of hundreds of islands including the
Marquesas, Hawaii,
Rapa Nui (Easter Island), and New Zealand. The
Tui Tonga Empire was founded in the 10th century CE and expanded between 1250 and 1500. Tongan culture, language, and hegemony spread widely throughout eastern
Melanesia,
Micronesia, and central
Polynesia during this period. They influenced east
'Uvea,
Rotuma,
Futuna,
Samoa, and
Niue, as well as specific islands and parts of Micronesia,
Vanuatu, and
New Caledonia. In Northern Australia, there is evidence that
Aboriginal Australians regularly
traded with Makassan trepangers from Indonesia before the arrival of Europeans. In Aboriginal societies, leadership was
based on achievement while the social structure of Polynesian societies was characterized by hereditary
chiefdoms.
Americas observatory,
Chichen Itza, Mexico|alt=Ruins of a domed building with steps leading to it ,
Inca Empire, Peru|alt=Stone ruins in the mountains In North America, this period saw the rise of the
Mississippian culture in the modern-day United States CE, marked by the extensive 11th-century urban complex at
Cahokia. The
Ancestral Puebloans and their predecessors (9th–13th centuries) built extensive permanent settlements, including stone structures that remained the largest buildings in North America until the 19th century. In Mesoamerica, the
Teotihuacan civilization fell and the
classic Maya collapse occurred. The
Aztec Empire came to dominate much of Mesoamerica in the 14th and 15th centuries. In South America, the 15th century saw the rise of the Inca. The Inca were prosperous and advanced, known for an excellent
road system and elegant stonework. == Early modern ==