Foundation The city of
Carthage (site of its ruins near present-day Tunis) was founded by
Phoenicians coming from the
eastern Mediterranean coast. Its name, pronounced
Qart Hadesht in the
Punic language that meant "new city" (It's cognate with
Arabic, "Qarya Ħadītha", lit: "Modern Village/City). The Punic idiom is a
Canaanite language, in the group of
Northwest Semitic languages. Timaeus of Taormina, a third century BC Greek historian from Sicily, gives the date of the founding of Carthage as thirty-eight years before the first
Olympiad (776 BC), which in today's calendar would be the year 814 BC. Timaeus in Sicily was proximous to Cathaginians and their version of the city's foundation; his date is generally accepted as approximate. Ancient authors, such as
Sallust and
Pliny the Elder, give founding dates several hundred years earlier for other Phoenician cities in the western Mediterranean, such as
Utica and
Gades, but recent archeology has been unable to verify these earlier dates. It was
Tyre, a major maritime city-state of Phoenicia, which first settled Carthage, probably in order to enjoy a permanent station there for its ongoing trade. Legends alive in the African city for centuries assigned its foundation to a queen of Tyre, Elissa, also called
Dido. The Roman historian
Pompeius Trogus, a near contemporary of Virgil, describes a sinister web of court intrigue which caused Queen Elissa (Dido) to flee the city of Tyre westward with a fleet of ships. The Roman poet
Virgil (70–19 BC) portrays Dido as the tragic, admirable heroine of his epic the
Aeneid, which contains many inventions loosely based on legendary history, and includes the story about how the Phoenician queen acquired the
Byrsa.
Sovereignty By the middle of the sixth century BC, Carthage had grown into a fully independent
thalassocracy. Under Mago (r., c.550–530) and later his
Magonid family, Carthage became preeminent among the Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean, which included nearby
Utica. Trading partnerships were established among the Numidian Berbers to the west along the
African coast as well as to the east in
Libya; other stations were located in southern
Sardinia and western
Sicily,
Ibiza in the
Balearics,
Lixus south of the straits, and
Gades north of the straits, with additional trading stations in the south and east of
Iberia. Also, Carthage enjoyed an able ally in the
Etruscans, who then ruled a powerful state to the north of the infant city of Rome. A merchant sailor of Carthage,
Himilco, explored in the Atlantic to the north of the straits, along the coast of the
Lusitanians and perhaps as far as Oestrymnis (modern
Brittany), circa 500 BC. Carthage would soon supplant the Iberian city of
Tartessus in carrying the
tin trade from Oestrymnis. Another,
Hanno the Navigator explored the Atlantic to the south, along the African coast well past the River
Gambia. The traders of Carthage were known to be secretive about business and particularly about trade routes; it was their practice to keep the straits to the Atlantic closed to the Greeks. In the 530s there had been a three sided naval struggle between the Phoenicians, the Greeks, and the Etrusco-Punic allies; the Greeks lost
Corsica to the Etruscans and Sardinia to Carthage. Then the Etruscans attacked Greek colonies in the
Campania south of Rome, but unsuccessfully. As an eventual result,
Rome threw off their Etruscan kings of the
Tarquin dynasty. The
Roman Republic and Carthage in 509 entered into a treaty which set out to define their commercial zones.
Greek rivalry The energetic presence of
Greek traders and their emporia in the Mediterranean region led to disputes over commercial spheres of influence, especially in Sicily. This Greek threat, plus the foreign conquest of Phoenicia in the Levant, had caused many Phoenician colonies to come under the leadership of Carthage. In 480 BC (concurrent with
Persia's invasion of Greece), Mago's grandson
Hamilcar landed a large army in Sicily in order to confront
Syracuse (a colony of
Corinth) on the island's eastern coast, but the Greeks prevailed at the
Battle of Himera. A long struggle ensued with intermittent warfare between Syracuse led by e.g., the tyrant
Dionysius I (r.405–367), and Carthage led by e.g.,
Hanno I the Great. Later, near Syracuse Punic armies defeated the Greek leader
Agathocles (r.317–289) in battle, who then attempted a bold strategic departure by leaving Sicily and landing his forces at
Cape Bon near Carthage, frightening the city. Yet Carthage again defeated Agathocles (310–307). Greece, preoccupied with its conquest of the Persian Empire in the east, eventually became supplanted in the western Mediterranean by Rome, the new rival of Carthage. All this while Carthage enlarged its commercial sphere, venturing south to develop the Saharan trade, augmenting its markets along the African coast, in southern Iberia, and among the Mediterranean islands, and exploring in the far Atlantic. Carthage also established its authority directly among the Numidian Berber peoples in the lands immediately surrounding the city, which grew ever more prosperous. funerary stelae, showing (below moon and sun) a symbol of Tanit, queen goddess of Carthage
Religion of Carthage The Phoenicians of Tyre brought their lifestyle and inherited customs with them to Northwest Africa. Their religious practices and beliefs were generally similar to those of their neighbors in
Canaan, which in turn shared characteristics common throughout the
ancient Semitic world. Several aspects of Canaanite religion have been widely criticized, particularly temple prostitution and child sacrifice. Canaanite religious sense and mythology do not appear as elaborated or developed as those of Mesopotamia. In Canaan the supreme god was called
El, which means "god" in common Semitic. The important storm god was called
Baal, which means "master". Other gods were called after royalty, e.g.,
Melqart means "king of the city". The gods of the Semitic pantheon that were worshipped would depend on the identity of the particular city-state or tribe. After being transplanted to Africa far from its regional origins, and after co-existing with the surrounding
Berber tribes, the original Phoenician pantheon and ways of worship evolved distinctly over time at the city-state of Carthage.
Constitution of Carthage The government of Carthage was undoubtedly patterned after the Phoenician, especially the mother city of Tyre, but Phoenician cities had kings and Carthage apparently did not. An important office was called in
Punic the
Suffets (a Semitic word agnate with the
Old Hebrew Shophet usually translated as Judges as in the
Book of Judges). Yet the Suffet at Carthage was more the executive leader, but as well served in a judicial role. Birth and wealth were the initial qualifications. It appears that the Suffet was elected by the citizens, and held office for a one-year term; probably there were two of them at a time; hence quite comparable to the
Roman Consulship. A crucial difference was that the Suffet had no military power. Carthaginian generals marshalled
mercenary armies and were separately elected. From about 550 to 450 the Magonid family monopolized the top military position; later the Barcid family acted similarly. Eventually it came to be that, after a war, the commanding general had to testify justifying his actions before a court of 104 judges.
Aristotle (384–322, Greek) discusses Carthage in his
Politica describing the city as a "mixed constitution", a political arrangement with cohabiting elements of
monarchy,
aristocracy, and
democracy. Later
Polybus of Megalopolis (c.204–122, Greek) in his
Histories would describe the
Roman Republic as a mixed constitution in which the
Consuls were the monarchy, the
Senate the aristocracy, and the
Assemblies the democracy. Evidently Carthage also had an institution of elders who advised the Suffets, similar to the Roman Senate. We do not have a name for this body. At times members would travel with an army general on campaign. Members also formed permanent committees. The institution had several hundred members from the wealthiest class who held office for life. Vacancies were probably filled by co-option. From among its members were selected the
104 Judges mentioned above. Later the 104 would come to judge not only army generals but other office holders as well. Aristotle regarded the 104 as most important; he compared it to the
ephorate of
Sparta with regard to control over security. In Hannibal's time, such a Judge held office for life. At some stage there also came to be independent self-perpetuating boards of five who filled vacancies and supervised (non-military) government administration. Popular assemblies also existed at Carthage. When deadlocked the Suffets and the quasi-senatorial institution might request the assembly to vote, or in very crucial matters in order to achieve political coherence. The assembly members had no
legal wealth or birth qualification. How its members were selected is unknown, e.g., whether by festival group or urban ward or another method. The Greeks were favorably impressed by the constitution of Carthage;
Aristotle had a study of it made which unfortunately is lost. In the brief approving review of it found in his
Politica Aristotle saw one fault: that focus on pursuit of wealth led to
oligarchy. So it was in Carthage. The people were politically passive; popular rights came late. Being a commercial republic fielding a
mercenary army, the people were not conscripted for military service, an experience which can foster the feel for popular political action. On the other hand, Carthage was very stable; there were few openings for tyrants. "The superiority of their constitution is proved by the fact that the common people remain loyal," noted Aristotle. Only after defeat by Rome devastated Carthage's imperial ambitions did the people express interest in reform In 196, following the Second Punic War,
Hannibal, still greatly admired as a Barcid military leader, was elected
Suffet. When his reforms were blocked by a financial official about to become a Judge for life, Hannibal rallied the populace against the 104 Judges. He proposed a one-year term for the 104, as part of a major civic overhaul. His political opponents cravenly went to Rome and charged Hannibal with conspiracy, with plotting war against Rome in league with
Antiochus the Hellenic ruler of
Syria. Although
Scipio Africanus resisted such maneuver, eventually Roman intervention forced Hannibal to leave Carthage. Thus corrupt officials of Carthage efficiently blocked Hannibal's efforts at reform. The above description of the constitution basically follows Warmington. Largely it is taken from descriptions by Greek foreigners who likely would see in Carthage reflections of their own institutions. How strong was the Hellenizing influence within Carthage? The basic difficulty is the lack of adequate writings due to the secretive nature of the Punic state as well as to the utter destruction of the capital city and its records. Another view of the constitution of Carthage is given by Charles-Picard as follows. Mago (6th century) was
King of Carthage, Punic
MLK or
malik (Greek
basileus), not merely a
SFT or
Suffet, which then was only a minor official. Mago as
MLK was head of state and war leader; being
MLK was also a religious office. His family was considered to possess a sacred quality. Mago's office was somewhat similar to that of
Pharaoh, but although kept in a family it was not
hereditary, it was limited by legal consent; however, the council of elders and the popular assembly are late institutions. Carthage was founded by the
King of Tyre who had a royal monopoly on this trading venture. Accordingly, royal authority was the traditional source of power the
MLK of Carthage possessed. Later, as other Phoenician ship companies entered the trading region, and so associated with the city-state, the
MLK of Carthage had to keep order among a rich variety of powerful merchants in their negotiations over risky commerce across the seas. The office of
MLK began to be transformed, yet it was not until the aristocrats of Carthage became landowners that a council of elders was institutionalized.
Punic Wars with Rome The emergence of the Roman Republic and its developing foreign interests led to sustained rivalry with Carthage for dominion of the western Mediterranean. As early as 509 BC Carthage and Rome had entered into treaty status, but eventually their opposing positions led to disagreement, alienation, and conflict. , based on marble bust found at
Capua, said to have been made during his lifetime. Museo Nazionale, Naples. The
First Punic War (264–241 BC) started in Sicily. It developed into a naval war in which the Romans learned how to fight at sea and prevailed. Carthage lost Sardinia and its western portion of Sicily. Following their defeat, the
Mercenary revolt threatened the social order of Carthage, which they survived under their opposing leaders
Hanno II the Great, and
Hamilcar Barca, father of Hannibal. The
Second Punic War (218–201 BC) started over a dispute concerning
Saguntum (near modern Valencia) in
Hispania, from whence
Hannibal set out, leading his armies over the
Alps into Italy. At first Hannibal ("grace of Baal") won great military victories against Rome, at
Trasimeno (217 BC) and at
Cannae (216 BC), which came close to destroying Rome's ability to wage war. Yet the majority of Rome's Italian allies remained loyal; Rome drew on all her resources and managed to rebuild her military strength. For many years Hannibal remained on campaign in southern Italy. An attempt in 207 BC by his brother Hasdrubal to reinforce him failed. Meanwhile, Roman armies were contesting Carthage for the control of Hispania, in 211 BC the domain of armies under Hannibal's three brothers (
Hasdrubal and
Mago), and
Hasdrubal Gisco; by 206 BC the Roman general Cornelius Scipio (later Africanus) had defeated Punic power there. In 204 BC Rome landed armies at
Utica near Carthage, which forced Hannibal's return. One Numidian king,
Syphax, supported Carthage. Another,
Masinissa, Rome. At the
Battle of Zama in 202 BC the same Roman general
Scipio Africanus defeated Hannibal, ending the long war. Carthage lost its trading cities in Hispania and elsewhere in the Western Mediterranean, and much of its influence over the
Numidian Kingdoms in Northwest Africa. Carthage became reduced to its immediate surroundings. Also, it was required to pay a large indemnity to Rome. Carthage revived, causing great alarm in Rome. The
Third Punic War (149–146 BC) began following the refusal by Carthage to alter the terms of its agreement with Rome. Roman armies again came to Africa and lay siege to the ancient and magnificent city of Carthage, which rejected negotiations. Eventually, the end came; Carthage was destroyed and its citizens enslaved.
Afterward The region (modern Tunisia) was annexed by the
Roman Republic as the province of Africa. Carthage itself was eventually rebuilt by the Romans. Long after the fall of Rome, the city of Carthage would be again destroyed. ==Roman Province of Africa==