Human habitation in the Isfahan region can be traced back to the
Palaeolithic period. Archaeologists have found
artifacts dating back to the Palaeolithic,
Mesolithic,
Neolithic,
Bronze, and
Iron ages. During
Median rule, Isfahan became a regional centre, especially due to the benefits of the
Zayandehrud River. It was a religiously and ethnically diverse city during the reign of
Cyrus the Great, and exhibited religious tolerance. The
Muslim Arabs
captured Isfahan in 642 CE. They made it the capital of
al-Jibal province. The city further grew under the
Buyid and
Seljuk dynasties. After the fall of the Seljuks in 1200 CE, the city temporarily declined. It regained its importance during the
Safavid era (1501–1736), with the city experiencing a golden age under the rule of
Abbas the Great, who moved his capital from
Qazvin to Isfahan. During his reign, Turkish, Armenian, and Persian craftsmen were
forcefully resettled in the city to ensure its prosperity. Later, the city also had enclaves for people of
Georgian,
Circassian, and
Daghestani descent. In the 20th century, Isfahan was resettled by many people from southern Iran, especially during the population migrations at the start of the century and in the 1980s following the
Iran–Iraq War.
Median and Achaemenid era museum |alt=Metal artifact portraying a lion eating a large prey animal Under
Median rule, the commercial entrepôt began to show signs of more sedentary urbanism, growing into a regional centre that benefited from the fertile soil on the banks of the
Zayandehrud River, in a region called Aspandana or Ispandana. When
Cyrus the Great unified Persian and Median lands into the
Achaemenid Empire, the religiously and ethnically diverse city of Isfahan became an early example of the king's fabled
religious tolerance. Having just taken
Babylon, Cyrus made an edict in 538 BCE declaring that
Jews in Babylon could return to
Jerusalem. Later, some of the Jewish immigrants settled in Isfahan instead of returning to their homeland. The 10th century Persian historian
Ibn al-Faqih wrote:
Parthian era The
Parthians (247 BCE – 224 CE) continued the tradition of tolerance after the fall of the
Achaemenids, fostering both a
Hellenistic dimension within Iranian culture and the political organization introduced by
Alexander the Great's invading armies. Under the Parthians,
Arsacid governors administered the provinces of the nation from Isfahan, and the city's urban development accelerated to accommodate the needs of a capital city.
Sassanid era The
Sassanid Empire (224–651 CE) presided over massive changes in their realm, instituting sweeping agricultural reforms and reviving Iranian culture and the
Zoroastrian religion. Both the city and region were then called by the name Aspahan or Spahan. The city was governed by a group called the Espoohrans, who descended from seven noble Iranian families. Extant foundations of some Sassanid-era bridges in Isfahan suggest that the Sasanian kings were fond of ambitious urban-planning projects. While Isfahan's political importance declined during this period, many Sassanid princes studied statecraft in the city, and its military role increased. Its strategic location at the intersection of the ancient roads to
Susa and
Persepolis made it an ideal candidate to house a standing army, which would be ready to march against
Constantinople at any moment. The names
Aspahan and
Spahan are derived from the
Pahlavi or Middle Persian meaning 'the place of the army'. Although many theories have mentioned the origins of Isfahan, little is known of it before the rule of the Sasanian dynasty. Historical records suggest that, in the late 4th and early 5th centuries, Queen
Shushandukht – the Jewish wife of emperor
Yazdegerd I (reigned 399–420) and mother of his successor
Bahram V – settled a colony of Jewish immigrants in Yahudiyyeh (also spelled Yahudiya and
Jouybareh). The settlement was northwest of the Zoroastrian city of Isfahan, then known by the Achaemid and Parthian name . was its Sasanic name, which was shortened to (Arabic ). It was located on the northern bank of the Zayanderud River. The colony's establishment has also been attributed to
Nebuchadrezzar, though that is unlikely. After the Arab conquest of Iran, the gradual population decrease of Gay, and the simultaneous population increase of Yahudiyyeh and its suburbs, resulted in the formation of the nucleus of what was to become the city of Isfahan. The names
Aspadana,
Ispadana,
Spahan, and
Sepahan, from which the modern name Isfahan is derived, referred to the region in which the city was located. Isfahan and Gay were reportedly both circular in design, a characteristic of Parthian and Sasanian cities. However, this reported Sasanian circular city of Isfahan has not yet been uncovered.
Muslim conquest When the Arabs captured Isfahan in 642 CE, they made it the capital of
al-Jabal province, an area that covered much of ancient Media. Isfahan grew prosperous under the Persian
Buyid dynasty, which came to rule much of Iran when the temporal authority of the
Abbasid leaders waned in the 10th century. The city walls of Isfahan are thought to have been constructed during the tenth century. The Turkish conqueror and founder of the
Seljuq dynasty,
Toghril Beg, made Isfahan the capital of his domains in the mid-11th century; the city grew in size and splendour under his grandson
Malik-Shah I ( 1073–92). After the fall of the
Seljuks (), Isfahan temporarily declined and was eclipsed by other Iranian cities, such as
Tabriz and
Qazvin.
Khwarazmian and Mongol era Timurid era During his visit in 1327,
Ibn Battuta noted that "The city of Isfahan is one of the largest and fairest of cities, but it is now in ruins for the greater part." In 1387, Isfahan surrendered to the warlord
Timur. Initially treated with relative mercy, the city revolted against Timur's punitive taxes by killing the tax collectors and some of Timur's soldiers. In retribution, Timur ordered the massacre of the city residents; his soldiers reportedly killing 70,000 citizens. An eyewitness counted more than 28 towers, each constructed of about 1,500 heads.
Safavid era Isfahan regained its importance during the
Safavid era (1501–1736). The city's golden age began in 1598 when the Safavid ruler
Abbas the Great (reigned 1588–1629) made it his capital and rebuilt it into one of the largest cities of the 17th-century. In 1598, he moved his capital from
Qazvin to the more central Isfahan. He introduced policies increasing Iranian involvement in the Silk Road trade.
Turkish,
Armenian, and
Persian craftsmen were
forcefully resettled in the city to ensure its prosperity. Their contributions to the economic vitality of the city supported the recovery of Safavid prestige after earlier losses to the
Ottomans and
Qizilbash tribes. He ordered the establishment of a new quarter for these resettled Armenians from Old Julfa, and thus the Armenian Quarter of Isfahan was named
New Julfa. Today, it is one of the largest
Armenian quarters in the world. Shah Square would be adorned by 4 grand monuments on each side. To the north, a turquoise gate connected the new square to Isfahan's
Grand Bazaar and
old square; to the south, the
Shah Mosque became the new primary place of worship for city residents. In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of deportees and migrants from the
Caucasus settled in the city following an agreement between Abbas the Great and his
Georgian subject
Teimuraz I of Kakheti, whereby the latter became Muslim and accepted Safavid rule. In exchange, Teimuraz was allowed to rule as the region's
wāli, and his son served as the
dāruḡa ('prefect') of Isfahan. Engelbert Kaempfer, who dwelt in Safavid Iran in 1684–85, estimated their number at 20,000.
Modern age Isfahan from above.jpg|alt=Aerial photograph of road bridge|Street from above ETH-BIB-Rundblick von der Schahburg, Isfahan-Persienflug 1924-1925-LBS MH02-02-0159-AL-FL.tif|alt=Black-and-white photograph of city from above|Isfahan in 1924 Foolad Mobarakeh49.jpg|alt=Spools of steel sheets in a steel mill|Foolad Mobarakeh Steel Mill General map of Isfahan by Pascal Coste.jpg|alt=Printed map of Isfahan|Map of Isfahan by Pascal Coste In the 20th century, Isfahan was resettled by many people from southern Iran. Many came during the migrations at the start of the century, and in the 1980s following the
Iran–Iraq War. During the war, 23,000 people from Isfahan were killed, and there were 43,000 veterans. In 1921, the first telephone office was created on Shams Abadi street. During
World War II, Polish refugees, mostly children, were admitted in Isfahan. There were 21 Polish childcare units, located in different parts of the city. Today, Isfahan produces carpets, textiles, steel, handicrafts, and traditional foods, including sweets. Isfahan is noted for its production of the
Isfahan rug, a type of
Persian rug typically made of
merino wool and
silk. There are
nuclear experimental reactors as well as uranium conversion facilities (UCF) for producing nuclear fuel in the environs of the city. There is a major oil refinery and a large
air force base outside the city.
HESA, Iran's most advanced aircraft manufacturing plant, is located just outside the city. Isfahan was also attracting international investment as of 2014. Isfahan hosted the
International Physics Olympiad in 2007. In 2023, 200 loudspeakers were installed in the city by the government to play the
azān. The municipality created a tourism app called Isfahanema. As of 2023, several public housing projects were being built. In 2018, farmers in Isfahan protested for their
water rights, amidst ongoing
water shortages. They protested against the mismanagement and anti-American ideology of the Iranian government, chanting "Our enemy is here, they are lying that it is America", and "Front toward homeland back to enemy in Friday prayers". ==Geography==