The Americas North America Indigenous peoples of North America have a long history of tattooing. Tattooing was not a simple marking on the skin: it was a process that highlighted cultural connections to Indigenous ways of knowing and viewing the world, as well as connections to family, society, and place.There is no way to determine the actual origin of tattooing for Indigenous people of North America. The oldest known physical evidence of tattooing in North America was made through the discovery of a frozen, mummified,
Inuk female on
St. Lawrence Island, Alaska who had tattoos on her skin. Through radiocarbon dating of the tissue, scientists estimated that the female came from the 16th century. In 1585–1586,
Thomas Harriot, who was part of the Grenville Expedition, was responsible for making observations about Indigenous People of North America. In
A Brief and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia, Harriot recorded that some Indigenous people had their skin dyed and coloured. The
Jesuit Relations of 1652 describes tattooing among the
Petun and the
Neutrals, including a description of the process of using needles or thorns to perforate the skin, such as in the figure of an animal, and apply powdered charcoal to imprint an indelible image. From 1712 to 1717,
Joseph François Lafitau, another Jesuit missionary, recorded how Indigenous people were applying tattoos to their skin and developed healing strategies in tattooing the jawline to treat toothaches. Indigenous people had determined that certain nerves that were along the jawline connected to certain teeth, thus by tattooing those nerves, it would stop them from firing signals that led to toothaches. However, through
oral traditions, the information about tattoos and the actual practice of tattooing has persisted to present day.
St. Lawrence Iroquoians had used bones as tattooing needles. In addition, turkey bone tattooing tools were discovered at an ancient
Fernvale, Tennessee site, dated back to 3500–1600 BCE.
Inuit The
Inuit have a deep history of tattooing. In
Inuktitut, the
Inuit language of the eastern Canadian
Arctic, the word
kakiniit translates to the English word for tattoo and the word
tunniit means face tattoo.
Osage Nation The
Osage people used tattooing for a variety of different reasons. The tattoo designs were based on the belief that people were part of the larger cycle of life and integrated elements of the land, sky, water, and the space in between to symbolize these beliefs. In addition, the Osage People believed in the smaller cycle of life, recognizing the importance of women giving life through childbirth and men removing life through warfare. Scholars explain that this process of discovery likely included dreams and visions that would bring a specific manitou to the forefront for each young man to have. Chinese texts from the time also described Japanese men of all ages as decorating their faces and bodies with tattoos. Between 1603 and 1868, Japanese tattooing was only practiced by the
ukiyo (floating world) subculture. Generally firemen, manual workers and prostitutes wore tattoos to communicate their status. By the early 17th century, criminals were widely being tattooed as a visible mark of punishment. Criminals were marked with symbols typically including crosses, lines, double lines and circles on certain parts of the body, mostly the face and arms. These symbols sometimes designated the places where the crimes were committed. In one area, the character for "dog" was tattooed on the criminal's forehead. The
Government of Meiji Japan, formed in 1868, banned the art of tattooing altogether, viewing it as barbaric and lacking respectability. This subsequently created a subculture of criminals and outcasts. These people had no place in "decent society" and were frowned upon. They could not simply integrate into mainstream society because of their obvious visible tattoos, forcing many of them into criminal activities which ultimately formed the roots for the modern Japanese mafia, the Yakuza, with which tattoos have become almost synonymous in Japan. The
Ainu people also participate in tattooing called
Sinuye. These are connected with the Kamuy, gods of the ainu culture. Women receive tattoos around their mouths at an early age, the tattooing continues until they are married. Men may receive tattoos as well, most commonly on the shoulders or arms.
Mainland Southeast Asia Cambodia and Thailand Thai-Khmer tattoos, also known as Yantra tattooing, was common since ancient times. Just as other native southeast Asian cultures, animistic tattooing was common in
Tai tribes that were in southern China. Over time, this animistic practice of tattooing for luck and protection assimilated Hindu and Buddhist ideas. The Sak Yant traditional tattoo is practiced today by many and are usually given either by a Buddhist monk or a
Brahmin priest. The tattoos usually depict Hindu gods and use the
Mon script or ancient
Khmer script, which were the scripts of the classical civilizations of mainland southeast Asia.
Myanmar Tattooing in Burma was a widespread custom practiced by various ethnic groups, including the
Bamar,
Shan,
Chin, and
Karen, until the 20th century. Tattooing was a distinguishing cultural marker and a symbol of strength, courage and intimidation for
Lethwei fighters.
Austronesia Taiwan In Taiwan, facial tattoos of the
Atayal people are called
ptasan; they are used to demonstrate that an adult man can protect his homeland, and that an adult woman is qualified to weave cloth and perform housekeeping. Taiwan is believed to be the homeland of all the
Austronesian peoples, which includes
Filipinos,
Indonesians,
Polynesians and
Malagasy peoples, all with strong tattoo traditions. This along with the striking correlation between Austronesian languages and the use of the so-called hand-tapping method suggests that Austronesian peoples inherited their tattooing traditions from their ancestors established in Taiwan or along the southern coast of the Chinese mainland. Ancient clay human figurines found in archaeological sites in the
Batanes Islands, around 2500 to 3000 years old, have simplified stamped-circle patterns, which are believed to represent tattoos and possibly
branding (also commonly practiced) as well. Excavations at the Arku Cave burial site in
Cagayan Province in northern Luzon have also yielded both chisel and serrated-type heads of possible hafted bone tattoo instruments alongside Austronesian
material culture markers like adzes, spindle whorls,
barkcloth beaters, and
lingling-o jade ornaments. These were dated to before 1500 BCE and are remarkably similar to the comb-type tattoo chisels found throughout
Polynesia. Ancient tattoos can also be found among
mummified remains of various
Igorot peoples in cave and
hanging coffin burials in northern Luzon, with the oldest surviving examples of which going back to the 13th century. The tattoos on the mummies are often highly individualized, covering the arms of female adults and the whole body of adult males. A 700 to 900-year-old
Kankanaey mummy in particular, nicknamed "Apo Anno", had tattoos covering even the soles of the feet and the fingertips. The tattoo patterns are often also carved on the coffins containing the mummies. When
Antonio Pigafetta of the
Magellan expedition (c. 1521) first encountered the
Visayans of the islands, he repeatedly described them as "painted all over". The original Spanish name for the Visayans, "
Los Pintados" ("The Painted Ones") was a reference to their tattoos. Tattoos were known as
batuk (or
batok) or
patik among the
Visayan people;
batik,
buri, or
tatak (compare with
Samoan tatau) among the
Tagalog people;
buri among the
Pangasinan,
Kapampangan, and
Bicolano people;
batek,
butak, or
burik among the
Ilocano people;
batek,
batok,
batak,
fatek,
whatok (also spelled
fatok), or
buri among the various
Igorot peoples; These terms were also applied to identical designs used in woven textiles, pottery, and decorations for shields, tool and weapon handles, musical instruments, and others. Most of the names are derived from
Proto-Austronesian *beCik ("tattoo") and *patik ("mottled pattern"). Affixed forms of these words were used to describe tattooed people, often as a synonym for "renowned/skilled person"; like Tagalog
batikan, Visayan
binatakan, and Ilocano
burikan. Men without tattoos were distinguished as
puraw among Visayans, meaning "unmarked" or "plain" (compare with Samoan
pulau). This was only socially acceptable for children and adolescents, as well as the
asog (feminized men, usually
shamans); otherwise being a
puraw adult usually identified someone as having very low status. Tattoos are acquired gradually over the years, and patterns can take months to complete and heal. The tattooing process were sacred events that involved rituals to ancestral spirits (
anito) and the heeding of omens. For example, if the artist or the recipient
sneezes before a tattooing, it was seen as a sign of disapproval by the spirits, and the session was called off or rescheduled. Artists were usually paid with livestock, heirloom beads, or precious metals. They were also housed and fed by the family of the recipient during the process. A celebration was usually held after a completed tattoo.
Malaysia and Indonesia tattooing in progress with a mallet and hafted needles Several tribes in the insular parts have tattooing in their culture. One notable example is the
Dayak people of Kalimantan in Borneo (
Bornean traditional tattooing). Another ethnic group that practices tattooing are the
Mentawai people, as well as Moi and Meyakh people in West Papua.
Solomon Islands Some artifacts dating back 3,000 years from the Solomon Islands may have been used for tattooing human skin.
Obsidian pieces have been duplicated, then used to conduct tattoos on pig skin, then compared to the original artifacts. "They conducted these experiments to observe the wear, such as chipping and scratches, and residues on the stones caused by tattooing, and then compared that use-wear with 3,000 year old artifacts. They found that the obsidian pieces, old and new, show similar patterns, suggesting that they hadn't been used for working hides, but were for adorning human skin."
Polynesia Rapa Nui of Rapa Nui, (Walter Knoche, 1911)
Marquesas Islands warrior (1813)
New Zealand warrior by
Horatio Gordon Robley (1864) The
Māori people of New Zealand practised a form of tattooing known as
tā moko, traditionally created with chisels. However, from the late 20th century onward, there has been a resurgence of tā moko taking on European styles amongst Maori. Traditional tā moko was reserved for head area. There is also a related tattoo art, kirituhi, which has a similar aesthetic to tā moko but is worn by non-Maori.
Samoa man with tattoos () The traditional male tattoo in the
Samoan Islands is called the
pe'a. The traditional female tattoo is called the
malu. The word
tattoo is believed to have originated from the Samoan word
tatau, coming from
Proto-Oceanic *
sau₃ referring to a
wingbone from a
flying fox used as an instrument for the tattooing process. In Samoa, the tradition of applying tattoo, or tatau, by hand has been unbroken for over two thousand years. Tools and techniques have changed little. The skill is often passed from father to son, each tattoo artist, or tufuga, learning the craft over many years of serving as his father's apprentice. A young artist-in-training often spent hours, and sometimes days, tapping designs into sand or tree bark using a special
tattooing comb, or au. Honoring their tradition, Samoan tattoo artists made this tool from sharpened boar's teeth fastened together with a portion of the turtle shell and to a wooden handle. The Samoan tattooing process used a number of tools which remained almost unchanged since their first use. "Autapulu" is a wide tattooing comb used to fill in the large dark areas of the tattoo. "Ausogi'aso tele" is a comb used for making thick lines. "Ausogi'aso laititi" is a comb used for making thin lines. "Aumogo" small comb is used for making small marks. "Sausau" is the mallet used for striking the combs. It is almost two feet in length and made from the central rib of a coconut palm leaf. "Tuluma" is the pot used for holding the tattooing combs. Ipulama is the cup used for holding the dye. The dye is made from the soot collected from burnt lama nuts. "Tu'I" used to grind up the dye. These tools were primarily made out of animal bones to ensure sharpness. Traditional Samoan tattooing of the pe'a, a body tattoo, is an ordeal that is not lightly undergone. It takes many weeks to complete. The process is very painful and used to be a necessary prerequisite to receiving a matai title; this however is no longer the case.
Tattooing was also a very costly procedure.. Samoan society has long been defined by rank and title, with chiefs (ali'i) and their assistants, known as talking chiefs (tulafale). The tattooing ceremonies for young chiefs, typically conducted at the time of puberty, were part of their ascendance to a leadership role. The pain was extreme and the risk of death by infection was a concern. The permanent marks left by the tattoo artists would celebrate their dedication to cultural traditions. To back down from tattooing was to risk being labeled a "pala'ai" or coward. Those who could not endure the pain and abandoned their tattooing were left incomplete, would be forced to wear their mark of shame throughout their life. This would forever bring shame upon their family so it was avoided at all cost. The tattooing process itself would be 5 sessions, in theory. These 5 sessions would be spread out over 10 days for the inflammation to subside. Christian missionaries from the west attempted to purge tattooing among the Samoans, thinking it barbaric and inhumane. Many young Samoans resisted mission schools since they forbade them to wear tattoos. But over time attitudes relaxed toward this cultural tradition and tattooing began to reemerge in Samoan culture.
South Asia India woman with facial tattoo in
Odisha, India
Godna, also known as
Khoda, is an ancient traditional form of tattoo art originating from the
tribal communities of
Northern and
Central India, and present in their diasporas.
West Asia Persia Herodotus' writings suggest that slaves and prisoners of war were tattooed in Persia during the
classical era. This practice spread from Persia to Greece and then to Rome. In the
hamam (the baths), there were
dallaks whose job was to help people wash themselves. This was a notable occupation because apart from helping the customers with washing, they were massage-therapists, dentists, barbers and tattoo artists.
Kurds Facial tattoos are popular among the
Kurdish people in Iraq, Turkey, Syria and Iran, mostly in the form of dotted tattoos on the chin. They are most common among women aged 60 and above. Younger women often have more minimalist tattoos, such as a dot on the cheek or chin. These tattoos are often done at home with a sewing needle and soot filled into the puncture. Many of the tattos depict symbols from nature, such as plants, animals and stars. Tattoos between the eye are meant to protect from the evil eye.
Ottoman Empire Tattoos became widespread in the Ottoman Empire, likely through influence from Arabs as they gained popularity by the 18th century in Istanbul.
Janissaries in different guilds and extortion groups would tattoo their group emblem. The emblems also proved useful to extortionist gangs, and "the local trendiness of bodily ornamentation is recognized by the observation that "presently, it (al-washm) is a must among all Janissaries."
Bedouin Arabs 16th century Ottoman scholars described the tattoo as very common among the Arabs. tattoos among
Bedouins have long been documented and continue until the present, especially among women. The tattoos are usually done at home by other women (Romani women were traditionally hired for this work), and symbolize personal milestones and community history and identification. The tattoos are often made by indentation and insertion of indigo dye on the face, ankles, wrists and other body parts. They are also considered to ward off the evil eye and malevolent forces, and to protect the person, with some attributing healing and medical properties; similar beliefs existed in Ancient Egypt., tattooed human remains and iconographic evidence indicate that
ancient Egyptians practiced tattooing from at least 2000 BCE. It is theorized that tattooing entered Egypt through
Nubia, but this claim is complicated by the high mobility between Lower Nubia and
Upper Egypt as well as Egypt's
annexation of Lower Nubia during the
Middle Kingdom. in which he describes the tattoos on these three mummies and speculates that they may have served a medicinal or therapeutic purpose: "The examination of these scars, some white, others blue, leaves in no doubt that they are not, in essence, ornament, but an established treatment for a condition of the pelvis, very probably chronic
pelvic peritonitis." Ancient Egyptian tattooing appears to have been practiced on women exclusively; with an exception of a pre-dynastic male mummy found with And the possible exception of one extremely worn
Dynasty XII stele, there is no artistic or physical evidence that men were commonly tattooed. Two well-preserved Egyptian mummies dated from 3351 to 3017 BCE, a man and woman, bear figural tattoo patterns of horned animals.
Berbers Berber communities in Maghreb (Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia and Libya) practice tattooing on the arms, hands, face, neck, and collarbones. It is thought the tradition in these communities goes back several thousand years. Tattoos serve multiple purposes, including decoration, tribal affiliation, symbols of life transitions, and medicinal and fertility purposes. The practice is mainly limited to women, Symbols used include the
yaz, representing freedom, Berber tattoo artists both in North Africa and in the diaspora are continuing the practice. were used as symbols of beauty such as the tattooing of the gums, tattooed crosses and dots that were used for protection from Spirits and Identity such as patterns on the neck. The method used to create tattoos is a poking technique that uses a small sharp instrument like a needle or a small thorn that is dipped in a soot and oil mix which is made to create the ink and is then poked into the skin. The tattoos were usually taken place at celebrations, ceremonies, and rituals and are done by women. Women often got tattooed on the forehead, neck, hands, and gums while men would have tattooed gums as well which was called Guramayle.
West Africa: Importance of Scarification Scarification is different from the tattooing with ink because scarification is the cutting or burning of the skin to make a permanent rising or indented mark on the skin. This method of tattooing is used to show social status, royalty, beautification and fertility. There are different types of scarifications, for example, Facial scarification, which were scars and marks created on the face was often used for beautification and identity which were used for the Yoruba of
Nigeria,
Tiv, and
Hausa. Another form of this technique is
Cicatrization which are risen Keloid scares which are usually created from deep cuts to remove patches of skin. It is important for these to be highly visible. In order to do this, ash, clay, or charcoal is rubbed on the skin to slow the healing process allowing the scar tissue to grow.
Europe The earliest possible evidence for tattooing in Europe appears on ancient art from the
Upper Paleolithic period as incised designs on the bodies of humanoid figurines. The
Löwenmensch figurine from the
Aurignacian culture dates to approximately 40,000 years ago and features a series of parallel lines on its left shoulder. The ivory
Venus of Hohle Fels, which dates to between 35,000 and 40,000 years ago also exhibits incised lines down both arms, as well as across the torso and chest. The oldest and most famous direct proof of ancient European tattooing appears on the body of
Ötzi the Iceman, who was found in the
Ötz valley in the Alps and dates from the late 4th millennium BCE. The
Picts may have been tattooed (or
scarified) with elaborate, war-inspired black or dark blue
woad (or possibly copper for the blue tone) designs.
Julius Caesar described these tattoos in Book V of his
Gallic Wars (54 BCE). Nevertheless, these may have been painted markings rather than tattoos. In his encounter with a group of pagan Scandinavian
Rus' merchants in the early 10th century,
Ahmad ibn Fadlan describes what he witnesses among them, including their appearance. He notes that the Rus' were heavily tattooed: "From the tips of his toes to his neck, each man is tattooed in dark green with designs, and so forth." Raised in the aftermath of the
Norman conquest of England,
William of Malmesbury describes in his
Gesta Regum Anglorum that the Anglo-Saxons were tattooed upon the arrival of the Normans (..."arms covered with golden bracelets, tattooed with coloured patterns ...").
Balkans funerary stele from
Apulia. Based on the writings of ancient authors such as
Herodotus (5th century BC),
Cicero and
Strabo (1st century BC), whose statements are also confirmed by archaeological findings, ethnographic studies have concluded that the practice of
tattooing among the peoples of the
Balkan peninsula was known since
ancient times. This practice was found among the
Illyrian and
Thracian tribes, who used tattooing to distinguish tribal origins. Before the
Iron Age, this Paleo-Balkan practice also spread from the western Balkans to southeast
Italy (Apulia) by
Iapygian migrations across the Adriatic Sea. In the
Graeco-Roman world tattooing was conceived as a
barbaric custom that was used exclusively for punitive or ownership purposes, but the
ancient Balkan peoples' perception of tattooing was different, as it was a deep and long-standing cultural embodiment distinguishing them from other cultures. The writings of ancient authors show that in the Balkans tattooing was in the purview of the elites. Iconographic and literary sources reveal in particular that it was especially practiced by the female members of society. In the western Balkans, isolated from outside influences, the practice of tattooing continued until the early 20th century in
Albania (
Albanian traditional tattooing) and
Bosnia (
Sicanje), regions that in antiquity were part of the area of
Illyria.
Illyrians Long bronze needles with wooden handles found in
Glasinac and
Donja Dolina are considered to have been tools for practicing tattoos. Early figurative representations of this ancient Balkan tradition are found in
Apulia, southeast
Italy, in the material culture of the
Daunians, who were of western Balkan provenance. The custom of tattooing among Daunians can be detected in
Daunian stelae and in matt-painted
ollae. It can also be conceivably identified on the wall of a late 4th-century tomb chamber from
Arpi, in which a painting shows tattoos on the arms of the 'priestess' riding a
quadriga. Daunian material culture shows that among them, forearms were the most common tattooed parts of the body.
Thracians The
Thracians, who inhabited East Macedonia and southeast Bulgaria, viewed tattoos as signs of nobility and divinity. In Book 5 (of
The Histories), Herodotus remarks that the Thracians believed "
the possession of tattoos held to be a sign of breeding, while the lack of them was a mark of low birth". Thracians primarily used tattoos for decorative purposes. Tattoos helped display one's heritage and courage through intricate designs that carried personal and familial significance. Some historians suggest that tattoos served as a form of intimidation too, becoming an integral part of a warrior's armor and identity. Tattooing among the Thracian tribes was mostly voluntary, reflecting its non-punitive purpose. While it is impossible to confirm that this was true for all Thracian tribes - due to a lack of irrefutable evidence and because the Thracians were a group of non-literary people - it can still be reasonably concluded that tattoos were often used for decorative reasons, or at least had the potential to be. That tattoos were used as a way of expressing ideas, and cultural values, reflecting the standards of beauty and aesthetic ideals of the time. Thracian women drew their tattoos in different areas. They were mainly placed on their arms, legs, and chests, and consisted of geometric patterns, such as spirals, or symbolic animal figures, like deers and half-moons. These tattoos also enhanced their physical appearances, "
accentuating their lithe and agile bodies". Thracian tattoos were therefore used as mediums of pride and artistry, reflecting a cultural emphasis on beauty rather than punishment.
Greece Greek written records, particularly from
Herodotus, suggest that the Greeks learned tattooing from the Persians during the sixth century BCE. Herodotus claims that tattoos were first used to relay important messages, serving as a means of communication during times of war and conflict. Over time, the function of tattoos diversified, reflecting the changes in cultural values across different societies and periods of time. Historians initially believed that these historical accounts were referring to the practice of
branding, but recent research During the
Byzantine period, the verb
kentein (κεντεῖν) replaced
stizein, and a variety of new Latin terms replaced
stigmata including
signa "signs",
characteres "stamps", and
cicatrices "scars". However, some historians interpret these tattoos as a sign and way of mourning Orpheus' death, rather than as a form of punishment. The Greeks were not entirely unaware of the aesthetic aspect of tattoos. In
Anabasis,
Xenophon describes the group he encountered near the coast of the Black Sea as having embroidery-like flower patterns on their bodies. The adjective he uses,
poikilos, carries aesthetic connotations. However, despite this recognition, the Greeks predominantly associated tattoos with barbarians and sought to link the practice to foreign culture. For instance, many comedies featured fictional slaves being threatened with tattoos. In
Wasps, the enslaved Xanthias wishes he had a tortoise shell as he yells out "
I am being tattooed to death with a stick". As suggested by C.P. Jones, it is probably not that Xanthias was getting physically beat up but that his master was using the sharp point of the stick to ink him. These examples illustrate how the Greeks used tattooing to punish criminals as well as to reinforce cultural boundaries, to separate themselves and assert superiority. In the Graeco-Roman world,
tattoos were frequently drawn on the forehead. A place that is highly visible, permanently altering one's identity and appearance. As Geoffrey Bakewell suggests, "
This deliberate placement simultaneously marked the individuals as property of the state and also converted them into currencies for market transitions". Tattoos thus emphasized the tattooer's power, control, and social standing within society and reinforced the
tattoo recipients marginalized position by stripping them of their autonomy and freedom.
Rome The ancient Greeks and
Romans used tattooing to penalize slaves, criminals, and prisoners of war. While known, decorative tattooing was looked down upon and religious tattooing was mainly practiced in
Egypt and
Syria. The lack of adequate hygiene endangered one's health and the permanent nature of tattoos served as a continuous reminder of subservience. This practice facilitated the ostracization of these individuals from
respectable members of society, creating a visible divide between
us and
them. Compared to the Greeks, the Romans adopted a more systematic approach to punitive tattooing. They incorporated words, phrases, and acronyms that were typically a combination of the nature of the crime that he/she had committed, the name of the victim (or of the master), and the sentence itself. According to Aeschines, some slaves bore the inscription: "Stop me, I'm a runaway". In this way, tattoos became a tool for systematic exploitation and social control, and to exclude criminals and slaves from receiving citizenship, even if they had earned their freedom. Tattoos ensured that "
they were confined to the lowest possible category of free non-citizens". In 316, emperor
Constantine I made it illegal to tattoo the face of slaves as punishment. The Romans of
Late Antiquity also tattooed soldiers and arms manufacturers, a practice that continued into the ninth century.
Scythia chieftain whose mummy was discovered at
Pazyryk, Russia. The tattoo was made between about 200 and 400 BCE. Tattooed mummies dating to c. 500 BCE were extracted from
burial mounds on the Ukok plateau during the 1990s. Their tattooing involved animal designs carried out in a
curvilinear style. The Man of
Pazyryk, a
Scythian chieftain, is tattooed with a detailed range of fish, monsters and a series of dots that lined up along the spinal column (lumbar region) and around the right ankle. == 16th century ==